
















4 





























♦ 


















Cyclopedia 


of 

Architecture, Carpentry, 
and Building 


A General Reference Work 

ON ARCHITECTURE, CARPENTRY, BUILDING, SUPERINTENDENCE, CONTRACTS, 
SPECIFICATIONS, BUILDING LAW, STAIR-BUILDING, ESTIMATING, 
MASONRY, REINFORCED CONCRETE, STRUCTURAL ENGINEER¬ 
ING, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, SHEET METAL 
WORK, HEATING, VENTILATING, ETC. 


Prepared by a Staff of 

ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, ENGINEERS, AND EXPERTS OF THE HIGHEST 

PROFESSIONAL STANDING 


Illustrated with over Three Thousand Engravings 


TEN VOLUMES 


CHICAGO 

AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 
'< 1912 



Copyright. 1907 . 1909 . 1912 


BY 


AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 

Copyright, 1907 , 1909 . 1912 

BY 

AMERICAN TECHNICAL SOCIETY 


Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London 
All Rights Reserved 



V 




CCI.A312858 

\ 

A N 


0 




Authors and Collaborators 


JAMES C. PLANT 

Superintendent of Computing Division, Office of Supervising Architect, Treasury, 
Washington, D. C. 


V* 


WALTER LORING WEBB, C. E. 

Consulting Civil Engineer 

Author of “Railroad Construction,” “Economics of Railroad Construction,” etc. 

J. R. COOLIDGE, Jr., A. M. 

Architect, Boston 

President, Boston Society of Architects 
Acting Director, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 

V 


H. V. VON HOLST, A. B., S. B. 

Architect, Chicago 

President, Chicago Architectural Club 


FRED T. HODGSON 

Architect and Editor 

Member, Ontario Association of Architects 

Author of “Modern Carpentry,” “Architectural Drawing, Self-Taught,” “The Steel 
Square,” “Modern Estimator,” etc. 


GLENN M. HOBBS, Ph. D. 

Secretary, American School of Correspondence 

FRANK O. DUFOUR, C. E. 

Assistant Professor of Structural Engineering, University of Illinois 
American Society of Civil Engineers 


V* 

SIDNEY T. STRICKLAND, S. B. 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris 


V* 

WM. H. LAWRENCE, S. B. 

Professor of Architectural Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 



Authors and Collaborators—Continued 


EDWARD NICHOLS 

Architect, Boston 




H. W. GARDNER, S. B. 

Aimociute Professor of Architecture, Massachusetts Institute of r I echnology 


JESSIE M. SHEPHERD, A. B. 

Associate Editor, Textbook Department, American School of Correspondence 

V* 

GEORGE C. SHAAD, E. E. 

I’rofessor of Electrical Engineering, University of Kansas 


MORRIS WILLIAMS 

Writer and Export on Carpentry and Building 

V* 

HERBERT E. EVERETT 

Professor of the History of Art, University of Pennsylvania 

ERNEST L. WALLACE, B. S. 

Assistant Examiner, United States Patent Office, Washington, D. C. 

Formerly Instructor in Electrical Engineering, American School of Correspondence 

OTIS W. RICHARDSON, LL. B. 

Of the Poston Par 


V 


WM. G. SNOW, S. B. 

Steam Heating Specialist 

Author of 'Furnace Heating,” Joint Author of “Ventilation of Buildings” 
American Socioty of Mechanical Engineers 

W. HERBERT GIBSON, B. S., C. E. 

Civil Enginoor and Designer of Reinforced Concrete 

ELIOT N. JONES, LL. B. 

Of the Boston Par 



Authors and Collaborators—Continued 


R. T. MILLER, Jr., A. M., LL. B. 

President, American School of Correspondence 

V 

WM. NEUBECKER 

Instructor, Sheet Metal Department of New York Trade School 

V* 

WM. BEALL GRAY 

Sanitary Engineer 

Member, National Association of Master Plumbers 


EDWARD MAURER, B. C. E. 

Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin 

EDWARD A. TUCKER, S. B. 

Architectural Engineer 

Member, American Society of Civil Engineers 

V* 


EDWARD B. WAITE 

Head of Instruction Department, American School of Correspondence 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
Western Society of Engineers 


V 

ALVAH HORTON SABIN, M. S. 

Lecturer in New York University 

Author of “Technology of Paint and Varnish,” etc. 

American Society of Mechanical Engineers 


GEORGE R. METCALFE, M. E. 

Editor, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 

Formerly Head, Technical Publication Department, Westinghouse Electric & Manufac 
turing Co. 

% 

V* 

HENRY M. HYDE 

Editor “Technical World Magazine” 


CHAS. L. HUBBARD, S. B., M. E. 

Consulting Engineer on Heating, Ventilating, Lighting, and Power 
Formerly with S. Homer Woodbridge Co. 



Authors and Collaborators—Continued 


FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN 

Architect, Boston 

Author of “ Letters and Lettering” 




DAVID A. GREGG 

Teacher and Lecturer in Pen and Ink Rendering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 


V* 


CHAS. B. BALL 

Chief Sanitary Inspector, City of Chicago 
American Society of Civil Engineers 


V* 

ERVIN KENISON, S. B. 

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

'V* 


CHAS. E. KNOX, E. E. 

Consulting Electrical Engineer 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers 


JOHN H. JALLINGS 

Mechanical Engineer 


V 

FRANK A. BOURNE, S. M., A. A. I. A. 

Architect, Boston 

Special Librarian, Department of Fine Arts, Public Library Boston 




ALFRED S. JOHNSON, Ph. D. 


Formerly Editor ‘‘Technical World Magazine” 


GILBERT TOWNSEND, S. B. 

With Ross & McFarlane, Montreal 


HARRIS C. TROW, S. B., Managing Editor 

Editor-in-Chief, Textbook Department, American School of Correspondence 



Authorities Consulted 


T HE editors have freely consulted the standard technical literature 
of America and Europe in the preparation of these volumes. They 
desire to express their indebtedness particularly to the following 
eminent authorities whose well-known works should be in the library of 
everyone connected with building. 

Grateful acknowledgment is here made also for the invaluable co¬ 
operation of the foremost architects, engineers, and builders in making 
these volumes thoroughly representative of the very best and latest prac¬ 
tice in the design and construction of buildings; also for the valuable 
drawings and data, suggestions, criticisms, and other courtesies. 


J. B. JOHNSON, C. E. 

Formerly Dean, College of Mechanics and Engineering, University of Wisconsin 

Author of “Engineering Contracts and Specifications," “Materials of Construction," 
Joint Author of “Theory and Practice-in the Designing of Modern Framed Struc¬ 
tures” 

JOHN CASSAN WAIT, M. C. E., LL. B. 

Counselor-at-Law and Consulting Engineer; Formerly Assistant Professor of Engineer¬ 
ing at Harvard University 

Author of “Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence" 

V* 

T. M. CLARK 

Fellow of the American Institute of Architects 

Author of “Building Superintendence,” “Architect, Builder, and Owner before the 
Law" 

FRANK E. KIDDER, C. E., Ph. D. 

Consulting Architect and Structural Engineer; Fellow of the American Institute of 
Architects 

Author of “Architects* and Builders’ Pocket-Pook;" “Building Construction and 
Superintendence; Part I, Masons’ Work; Part II, Carpenters’ Work; Part III, 
Trussed Roofs and Roof Trusses; " “Churches and Chapels” 

V* 

AUSTIN T. BYRNE, C. E. 

Civil Engineer 

Author of “Inspection of Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction,” 
“Highway Construction” 

W. R. WARE 

Formerly Professor of Architecture, Columbia University 

Author of “Modern Perspective” 




Authorities Consulted—Continued 


CLARENCE A. MARTIN 

Professor of Architecture at Cornell University 
Author of “Details of Building Construction” 


FRANK N. SNYDER 

Architect 

Author of "Building Details” 




CHARLES H. SNOW 

Author of “The Principal Species of Wood, Their Characteristic Properties” 


OWEN B. MAGINNIS 


Author of “How to Frame a House, or House and Roof Framing ' 


V 

HALBERT P. GILLETTE, C. E. 

Author of “Handbook of Cost Data for Contractors and Engineers” 


OLIVER COLEMAN 

Author of “Successful Houses” 




CHAS. E. GREENE, A. M., C. E. 

Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan 
Author of “Structural Mechanics” 


LOUIS de C. BERG 

Author of “Safe Building” 


V 

GAETANO LANZA, S. B., C. & M. E. 

Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
Author of “Applied Mechanics” 


IRA 0. BAKER 

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois 
Author of “A Treatise on Masonry Construction” 


GEORGE P. MERRILL 

Author of “Stones for Building and Decoration” 

V 

FREDERICK W.TAYLOR, M. E., and SANFORD E.THOMPSON, S. B., C.E. 

Joint Authors of “A Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced” 



Authorities Consulted—Continued 


A. W. BUEL and C. S. HILL 

Joint Authors of “Reinforced Concrete” 


V> 


NEWTON HARRISON, E. E. 

Author of “ Electric Wiring, Diagrams and Switchboards” 

FRANCIS B. CROCKER, E. M., Ph. D. 

Head of Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University; Past President, 
American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Author of “ Electric Lighting” 

J. R. CRAVATH and V. R. LANSINGH 

Joint Authors of “Practical Illumination” 

JOSEPH KENDALL FREITAG, B. S., C. E. 

Authors of “ Architectural Engineering,” “ Fireproofing of Steel Buildings” 

V 


WILLIAM H. BIRKMIRE, C. E. 

Author of “ Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings,” “Architectural Iron 
and Steel, and Its Application in the Construction of Buildings,” “Compound 
Riveted Girders,” “Skeleton Structures,” etc. 


EVERETT U. CROSBY and HENRY A. FISKE 

Joint Authors of “Handbook of Fire Protection for Improved Risk” 


CARNEGIE STEEL COMPANY 

Authors of “ Pocket Companion, Containing Useful Information and Tables Appertain¬ 
ing to the Use of Steel” 




J. C. TRAUTWINE, C. E. 

Author of “Civil Engineer’s Pocket-Book” 


ALPHA PIERCE JAMISON, M. E. 

Assistant Professor of Mechanical Drawing, Purdue University 
Author of “Advanced Mechanical Drawing” 

V* 


FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN 


Architect. Boston 

Author of “ Letters and Lettering” 



Authorities Consulted—Continued 


HENRY McGOODWIN 

Author of “Architectural Shades and Shadows” 


VIGNOLA 

Author of “The Five Orders of Architecture,” American Edition by Prof. Ware 

CHAS. D. MAGINNIS 

Author of “Pen Drawing, An Illustrated Treatise” „ 

V* 


FRANZ S. MEYER 

Professor in the School of Industrial Art, Karlsruhe 
Author of “Handbook of Ornament,” American Edition 

RUSSELL STURGIS 

Author of “A Dictionary of Architecture and Building,” and "How to Judge Archi¬ 
tecture” 

A. D. F. HAMLIN, A. M. 

Professor of Architecture at Columbia University 
Author of “A Textbook of the History of Architecture 

RALPH ADAMS CRAM 

Architect 

Author of “Church Building” 


V* 

C. H. MOORE 

Author of “Development and Character of Gothic Architecture ' 

V* 

ROLLA C. CARPENTER, C. E., M. M. E. 

Professor of Experimental Engineering, Cornell University 
Author of ‘Heating and Ventilating Buildings” 

WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD 

Author of “A Guide to Sanitary House Inspection” 

I. J. COSGROVE 

Author of “ Principles and Practice of Plumbing” 




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PLAN OF RESIDENCE FOR MAJOR-GENERAL THE HON. W. A. BANCROFT, GROTON, MASS. 

Ripley & Russell, Architects, Boston, Mass. 

For Exterior View, Reproduced in Color, See Frontispiece in this Volume 

























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































BUILDING FOR AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE, CHICAGO, ILL, 

Pond & Pond, Architects. 


















































































































































































































































































































































































Foreword 


HE rapid evolution of constructive methods in recent 
years, as illustrated in the use of steel and concrete, 
and the increased size and complexity of buildings, 
has created the necessity for an authority which shall 
embody accumulated experience and approved practice along a 
variety of correlated lines. The Cyclopedia of Architecture, 
Carpentry, and Building is designed to fill this acknowledged 
need. 

<L There is no industry that compares with Building in the 
close interdependence of its subsidiary trades. The Architect, 
for example, who knows nothing of Steel or Concrete con¬ 
struction is today as much out of place on important work 
as the Contractor who cannot make intelligent estimates, or who 
understands nothing of his legal rights and responsibilities. A 
carpenter must now know something of Masonry, Electric Wiring, 
and, in fact, all other trades employed in the erection of a build¬ 
ing; and the same is true of all the craftsmen whose handiwork 
will enter into the completed structure. 

C, Neither pains nor expense have been spared to make the 
present work the most comprehensive and authoritative on the 
subject of Building and its allied industries. The aim has been, 
not merely to create a work which will appeal to the trained 




expert, but one that will commend itself also to the beginner 
and the self-taught, practical man by giving him a working 
knowledge of the principles and methods, not only of his own 
particular trade, but of all other branches of the Building Indus¬ 
try as well. The various sections have been prepared especially 
for home study, each written by an acknowledged authority on 
the subject. The arrangement of matter is such as to carry the 
student forward by easy stages. Series Of review questions are 
inserted in each volume, enabling the reader to test his knowl¬ 
edge and make it a permanent possession. The illustrations have 
been selected with unusual care to elucidate the text. 

C, The work will be found to cover many important topics on 
which little information has heretofore been available. This is 
especially apparent in such sections as those on Steel, Concrete, 
and Keinforced Concrete Construction; Building Superintendence; 
Estimating; Contracts and Specifications, including the princi¬ 
ples and methods of awarding and executing Government con¬ 
tracts; and Building Law. 

C, The Cyclopedia is a compilation of many of the most valu¬ 
able Instruction Papers of the American School of Correspond¬ 
ence, and the method adopted in its preparation is that which this 
School has developed and employed so successfully for many years. 
This method is not an experiment, but has stood the severest of all 
tests—that of practical use—which has demonstrated it to be the 
best yet devised for the education of the busy working man. 

CL In conclusion, grateful acknowledgment is due the staff of 
authors and collaborators, without whose hearty co-operation 
this work would have been impossible. 


Table of Contents 


VOLUME I 

Building Superintendence . . By Edward Nichols t Page *11 

Selection of Site — Cellar Work and Foundations — Cesspools and Drains — 
Framing Walls, Roofs, and Partitions — Mason Work — Electric Wiring — 

Outside Finish — Lathing and Plastering — Concreting — Fireplaces — Plumb¬ 
ing— Furnace Heating — Steam Heating — Hot-Water Heating — Inside Finish 
—Hardware — Painting—Decorating — Glazing — Brickwork — Stone Masonry— 
Columns, Arches, and Trimmings — Roofing and Metal Work — Windows — 
Skylights—Iron and Steel Supports — Floor Beams—Tiling and Mosaic—Fire¬ 
proof Vaults—Fireproof Building—Terra-Cotta Floor Arches—Concrete Floors 
—Exterior Walls 

Contracts and Specifications, Part I By James C. Plant Page 207 

General Province of the Specification — Studies in Materials — Sample Specifica¬ 
tions—Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities of Owner, Architect, and Contractor- 
Method of Payment—Time Limit—Various Details of Construction (Masonry, 
Carpentry, Heating, etc.) — Form of Proposal Sheet—Awarding the Contract— 

Form of Agreement between Owner and Contractor—Architect’s Certificate to 
Contractor — Contractor’s Receipt to Owner—Owner’s Receipt to Contractor for 
Insurance Policies — Government Contracts — Special Form of Government 
Contract—Form of Bond 

Contracts and Specifications, Part II .Page 273 

Requirements of a Good Specification—Memorandum Specification—What Should 
Be Included in the Specification? What Omitted? — Ambiguous Terms—Relation 
of Specification to Working Drawings — Marginal Sketches — Use of Card 
System—The Specification Reminder—Sub-Contractors and Specialists—Typical 
Form of Detailed Specification 

Building Law . By Eliot N. Jones and Otis W. Richardson Page 315 

Law of Contracts—Express and Implied Contracts —Parties Competent to Enter 
into Contracts — Consent — Consideration — Statute of Frauds — Conditional 
Contracts — Construction of Contracts — Assignment of Contracts — Avoidance 
of Contracts — Reforming Contracts — Penalties and Liquidated Damages — 
Discharge of Contract—Waiver, Modification—Suretyship—Law of Agency— 

Powers of Agent — Liens — Torts — Mutual Rights, Duties, and Liabilities of 
Owner, Architect, and Contractor — Certificates — Settlement of Disputes — 
Inspection — Limit of Cost — Architects as Public Officials — Competitions — 
Ownership of Plans 


Index ...Page 387 


* For page numbers, see foot of pages. 

t For professional standing of authors, see list of Authors and Collaborators at 
front of volume. 





GRACE MEMORIAL CHAPEL, CHICAGO, ILL. 

Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson, Architects, New York and Boston. 
Exterior of Bedford Stone. For Interiors, See Vol. II, Pages 10 and 74 






















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 

PART I. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The superintendence of building operations is one of the most 
important, and at times one of the most perplexing duties which an 
architect is called upon to perform. Plans may have been prepared 
with the greatest of skill and elaboration, and details may have been 
worked out to a marvel of perfection; and yet by the want of atten¬ 
tion given at the proper time, costly mistakes may be made and 
results attained which are a source of annoyance and expense to the 
owner, and often a lasting discredit to both architect and builder. 
It is only by constant watchfulness and by the exercise of a thorough 
knowledge of common practices and materials, that these errors can 
be avoided, and it is the duty of the architect, as superintendent, and 
a just and impartial referee between the owner and the builder, to 
acquire this knowledge and to exercise it freely and decisively. 

The owmer, who has secured the services of an architect, will 
naturally expect from him something more than the builder could have 
furnished. Superiority in matters of taste he will expect as a matter 
of course, and beyond this a superior knowledge of materials and con¬ 
struction ; and an executive ability to handle men and direct the many 
forces which must be applied to obtain a certain and satisfactory 
result. The architect should possess then, as superintendent, a 
thorough knowledge of the materials at his disposal and should see 
clearly before him, in his mind’s eye, the building which he proposes 
to erect. To do this, he must know how all the various elements of 
the building are to be assembled and moulded into a complete whole. 

To a familiarity with details must be added such a quickness 
of perception and soundness of judgment, that it will be impossible 
for any bad work to escape his notice, and to this knowledge of the 
general principles of building, he must add an understanding of 
principles and possibilities far beyond that of the builder, so that 
he can foresee causes and effects and guard against any waste of 


11 



4 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


effort or of time. In his position of referee, he must show such a 
familiarity with building matters that his judgment will be respected 
by both owner and builder; and he must have confidence that his 
opinions are correct, and having rendered a decision he must stick 
to it, for if he shows weakness or indecision it will not take long for 
the workmen to discover it, and he will be discredited and very likely 
will be imposed upon. It will not do for the architect to trust too 
much to the generosity of the owner, or to the liberal intentions of 
the builder; for it is likely to be the case that both are at the same time 
trusting in the ability of the architect and the clearness of his foresight. 

Relations with the Owner and Contractor. It is important 
to have as early as possible a clear understanding of what is to 
be expected by the owner, and to have him understand as clearly 
what is due to him from the architect. The owner, in his implicit 
confidence and trust in the foresight of the architect, is likely to visit 
upon him the blame for failures of particular construction, which 
can only be avoided by the care of superior workmen under the con¬ 
stant watchfulness of the builder or an ever alert clerk-of-the-works; 
and it is well for the architect to have it understood at the beginning 
that he cannot always be present and that he cannot in ordinary 
practice, guarantee perfection of plan or execution, but can agree 
to exercise reasonable care and observation. 

With the contractor it should be clearly understood at the begin¬ 
ning that the work is to be done strictly in accordance with the draw¬ 
ings and specifications, that the materials are to be as called for, the 
workmen to be competent, and the builder himself interested and 
capable. If any material appears upon the site which is unfit, it 
should be rejected at once and finally, for any laxity or indecision 
upon this point at the start will be sure to be taken advantage of, 
and will be a precedent for future indifference. Any work not care¬ 
fully done, or in accordance with drawings must be at once taken 
down, in the presence of the architect if possible, and any mistakes 
discovered should be noted before they are forgotten or crowded 
aside by other details. 

Familiarity with Site. Of prime importance to the architect 
in starting a new building is a familiarity with the site and with 
local conditions and customs, and it will be of advantage to him to 
make the greatest possible use of the time usually spent in prelimi- 


12 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


5 


nary visits to the locality, to observe what is being, or has been done 
in the vicinity. The more familiar the architect is with local customs 
or possibilities, the more efficient will his supervision of that particu¬ 
lar building become, that he may reject practices which are bad and 
profit by those which are good. There are very few buildings erected 
from which the young architect cannot learn something, and it is 
an unprogressive builder who has not some particular method which 
will be new to the superintendent. 

Drawings. Another essential, and one of greatest importance, 
is that the superintendent should have a perfect understanding of the 
drawings and specifications. If they have been prepared by the 
architect who is to superintend the work, an understanding is assured, 
but even in this case it will be necessary to consult the plans often, 
lest something be overlooked or confused with some other building 
which the architect may have in mind. It will also be of service in 
'enabling him to look ahead, and to prevent many unintentional devia¬ 
tions which may cause delay or damage to the construction if once 
started upon, through carelessness or unfamiliarity on the part of the 
builder, or of the foreman upon whom will devolve many of the duties 
and responsibilities of modern building operations. 

With the foreman an understanding should be had at once that 
he is to work with the architect, and not against him. It is poor 
policy for the architect to ignore suggestions made by the foreman, 
for if he is a thorough mechanic of ability and foresight, as the fore¬ 
man of a building of any importance should be, he will often be in a 
position to save the owner from needless expense, and the architect 
from many of the vexatious conditions and minor complications 
which often arise in ordinary building transactions. The foreman, 
as well as the master builder himself, should receive personal instruc¬ 
tion from the architect, and should be particularly instructed to look 
the drawings over carefully, and to report to the architect any dis¬ 
crepancies in figuring, or any apparent difficulties of execution which 
they may discover, as well as any points not clearly shown or fully 
understood. 

Confidence in Decisions. With this feeling of co-operation 
thoroughly established between the owner, the architect, and the 
builder, the architect will be in a position to decide any questions of 
difference with an assurance that his decisions, being fair and im- 


13 



6 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE; 


partial, will be respected, and being satisfied that his opinions are 
correct, he should announce his decisions promptly and impartially, 
and his answer being once given he must have the courage to main¬ 
tain his position unless he be proved to be in the wrong. A lack of 
confidence in his own judgment, or indecision may affect the prestige 
of the architect, and might be taken advantage of. 

Systematic Plan of Supervision. In following the construc¬ 
tion of a building the superintendent will find it of importance that 
some systematic method shall be followed in order to insure that 
attention is given to the various details of construction at the proper 
time. If this is not done many defects of construction and workman¬ 
ship are liable to be concealed or built upon in such a way as to make 
the remedy impossible or at the least inconvenient. To guard against 
this, the superintendent should make a point of going all over the 
building at each visit and examining carefully any work which has 
been done since his last visit. In this way he will not only guard 
against concealed defects but he will be able to time his next visit so 
that special operations, which he will be able to foresee, will receive 
his personal attention and direction at the proper time. 

Rejection of Materials. One of the most important safe¬ 
guards against defective building is the careful inspection of the 
materials as they are delivered at the building site, and the prompt 
rejection of any improper materials at that time. These should be 
marked plainly, in such a way that it will be impossible to use them 
in the superintendent’s absence without the mark being seen. If 
poor materials have been brought into the building, they should be 
rejected at once, and if possible removed from the building site. If 
the contractor finds at the start that all poor materials will be surely 
rejected, and that all work which is not properly done must surely 
be rebuilt, he will be careful that both workmanship and materials 
are kept up to the proper standard, and will keep on the building only 
workmen who prefer to do a good job rather than a bad one; for his 
own sake as well as for the good of the building. 

Theory. These preliminary remarks upon the duties and 
responsibilities of the superintendent, will serve to bring before the 
student of Architecture the importance of a familiar knowledge of 
ordinary practice. The young architect or student will rarely have 
an opportunity of gaining this knowledge by practical experience, and 


14 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


7 


it will be necessary for him to depend in a great measure upon tech¬ 
nical books for the knowledge which he must possess. It will be the 
object of this paper to point out to the student some of the ordinary 
operations of building construction, rather than the theoretically 
perfect methods, in a manner that can be easily understood, and to 
show as well some of the ways in which defective work and materials 
are to be discovered and avoided. 

It will be assumed that the student has become familiar with the 
usual methods of drawing and construction from his previous work 
and that he would be able, if called upon, to superintend the construc¬ 
tion of the suburban house which has been used as a type. By this 
it is not to be understood that the construction of a dwelling is the 
easiest matter, for this is not the case, but it is chosen because there 
is greater opportunity for the comparison of results with practice, in 
the buildings which we live in, and it is also this class of building 
which contains a variety of structural problems. 

Selection of Site. First in importance to the owner as well 
as to the architect is the selection of the spot where the house is to 
stand. To the owner the main essential will be the outlook and con¬ 
venience of approach, and at the same time the appearance which the 
house will present from the various approaches, with the maximum 
of the light and warmth of sunshine in the principal rooms, that the 
situation will allow. In almost all portions of our country a southern 
or eastern exposure is the pleasantest, and should be the choice for 
the principal rooms which will thus receive the morning sunshine and 
warmth in winter, and will avoid the intense heat of the afternoon 
sun in summer. 

To the architect, less apparent, but no less important considera¬ 
tions present themselves in the practical aspects of the ground. In 
rocky or hilly country, besides the importance of outlook, is the im¬ 
portance of placing the house so that natural advantages of slope and 
ledge may be taken advantage of for driveways or yards; and in every 
location is the consideration of the character of the soil. 

Soil. The soil may be rocky, or clayey, or sandy; it may be 
springy or well drained. The surest way to find out the actual con¬ 
dition, is by digging test pits to the proposed depth of the cellar, but 
in many cases the appearance of the surface will give sufficient indi¬ 
cation of the nature of the soil, while the presence of ledge may be 


15 



8 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


detected by driving a rod into the ground to the depth of excavation. 
If rocky or clayey, we may anticipate trouble from water, which in 
rock or clay finds a way into the excavations made (Fig. l)and, having 
no way of escape, gradually rises until the pressure is sufficient to 
force a way through the cellar wall or concrete in spite of almost any 
precaution which may be taken to exclude it. The only remedy is 
to give the water an easier way to escape than through the wall or 
cellar concreting; and in towns where there are sewers, this is an easy 
matter, as it is only necessary to secure a good connection with the 
sewer by means of suitable pipes, which must be started at a level 
lower than the cellar bottom. (Fig. 2). This will require that the 



house be set high enough to bring the bottom of the cellar well above 
the top of the sewer. If the house is in a locality where there is no 
sewer, a similar result can be obtained by laying drains running with a 
proper grade from the cellar of the house to wherever an outlet can 
be found at a lower level. This can usually be done in a rolling 
country, but a cellar in clay or rock in a level country is likely to be 
a continual source of trouble and should be avoided if possible. Most 
house-lots in the suburban towns will afford some choice in location, 
so that often serious trouble may be avoided by a careful examination 
of the soil and of surrounding conditions. In sandy or gravelly soil 


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12 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


hardly any extra precautions will be needed as the water is free to 
drain away through the sand and will have no tendency to run through 
the wall of the cellar. Even in sandy soil, however, it will be well to 
give the outside of the wall a coating of cement or asphaltum, taking 
care to see that the whole surface is covered. 

Description of House. The house which we will assume to 
construct is already familiar to the student in detail, and we may sup¬ 
pose it to be erected upon a suburban lot not wholly level but with 
the usual variations of ground and aspect. . The house is designed 
in the Colonial style (Fig. 3), and comprises a large living-room, hall, 
parlor, dining-room, back-hall, china closet, kitchen, pantry and 
entry, on the first floor (Fig. 4); and five chambers and bath room 
with stair halls on the second floor (Fig. 5). The attic is unfinished, 
and the basement will contain a laundry with wash trays, a store 
room and servant's water closet. The living room is finished in 
quartered oak, the dining-room in mahogany, the parlor, hall and 
sleeping rooms in white painted finish. The kitchen and service 
portions of the house are finished in North Carolina hard pine. 

The floors of main house will be of quartered oak in the first 
story and spruce in the second story. The floors of the service por¬ 
tions will be of Georgia pine. The exterior walls will be clap- 
boarded and the roof shingled. 

Drawings. The drawings upon which the contracts are to be 
based will consist of a plan of each floor, a roof plan and elevations of 
all four sides. Where the inside finish is at all elaborate, sectional 
drawings are made in sufficient number to show all of the rooms and 
halls. These general drawings, supplemented later by framing 
drawings and details and a carefully written set of specifications, 
will represent the labor, materials, and methods to be employed. 
The necessity of a perfect familiarity with these drawings and speci¬ 
fications on the part of the superintendent, is obvious and has been 
already dwelt upon to some length, but a few words may well be noted 
here in regard to the same precautions on the part of the owner and 
of the contractor. 

The Interest of the Owner. It will be to the interest of the 
owner, if he will take the time and trouble, while the drawings are 
yet being made, to consider, with the help of the architect, the various 
details of construction and furnishing, and to become familiar with the 


20 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


13 


drawings, that he may clearly understand just what they are intended 
to represent. By comparing sizes of rooms, doors, stairs and other 
fixtures as drawn, with houses already executed, he will be able to 
satisfy himself that the house when done will be according to his 
wish. The specifications may to good advantage be studied at home 
where he may receive suggestions from the various members of his 
family, and modifications can be readily made to meet individual 
preferences and tastes. Careful study of this kind will be of great 
value to the owner, and will often avoid later expense in altering 
work which, in the absence of particular instruction, will have been 
carried out in the usual way; and the architect will find that time 
spent in helping the owner, and also the contractor, to a thorough 
understanding of his drawings, will enable him to carry out the work 
with greater satisfaction to himself and to all concerned. With a 
complete and accurate set of drawings and specifications, a fair 
and equitable contract, and a thorough understanding of these instru¬ 
ments on the part of all the parties interested, we are well equipped 
to begin operations at once. 

Staking Out. Upon the signing of the contract, arrangements 
are usually made for the architect and the contractor to meet upon 
the ground, to lay out the 
building. In our case the 
contractor is required by the 
specifications to employ a 
civil engineer to lay out the 
work and set the “batter 
boards”. These consist of 
boards six or eight feet long 
as the case may require, se¬ 
curely nailed to joists which 
are firmly set in the ground 
at the corners of the cellar. 

(Fig. 6.) Two boards will 
be needed for each angle, and they are set four or five feet away from 
the line of the wall so as not to interfere with the excavation or lay¬ 
ing of the cellar wall. Before proceeding to erect the batters, the 
position of the house has been fixed by the engineer, by setting a 
stake at each corner, into the head of which is driven a nail marking 



21 



















14 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


N 


the exact comer as given by the figured plans. This is often omitted 
but is advisable as it gives a figure which will correspond to the di¬ 
mensions as figured on the plans, and any error can be more easily 
detected than when the lines for the walls are drawn. As soon as 
the corners of the house have been definitely located, the stakes for 
the batter boards are set and securely braced and upon these stakes 
the batter boards are nailed with the top of the board at some given 
level, usually the top of the cellar wall. Between these boards lines 
are stretched coinciding with the lines of the building as given by 
the small stakes, and when the lines are accurately drawn notches are 
cut in the top of the board to hold and mark the place where the 
string belongs. If the stakes first put down were to represent the 

outside line of the sill, as 
is often the case, we must 
measure out and make a 
second set of notches for 
the underpinning and 
back from this line we 
measure the thickness of 
the wall. (Fig. 7.) It is 
often the custom to drive 
nails into the top of the 
batter boards, to which 
the lines are tied, but 
this is not a good prac¬ 
tice, as the nails are likely to be pulled out of the board before the 
walls are finished, and are very likely to be driven in again in the 
wrong place. In addition to setting the batter boards at a given 
level, it is always well to establish in some permanent place, as 
upon the top of a neighboring ledge or by a stake firmly set and 
well out of the way of all building operations, a datum level or 
“bench mark”, as it is commonly called, from which at any time the 
levels of the work may be given. 

Space for Materials. Before leaving the grounds it will be well 
to instruct the builder where he can best deposit the material which 
will come from the excavations; and to place this to the best advan¬ 
tage, it will be necessary to determine in a general way, the position 
of the driveways or paths, and also to have a thought for future 



22 





















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


IS 


improvements and for the required drainage system. Unless this 
matter is taken up at this time it will be very probable that the earth 

from the cellar will be left so near the excavation that it will have to 

« 

be driven or walked over during construction and finally moved away 
to its destined use, as it should have been at the start. The gravel 
will be needed for the driveways and paths and space for this should 
be found not far away from the house; and the loam will be used 
where it is desired to have a good growth of grass and flower beds, 
so we will have this piled at the front of the lot, taking care to leave 
ample space for the convenient handling of timber and other materials. 
It will be necessary to consult the builder in regard to this, as well 
as in regard to the depositing of earth, in order that he may not later 
complain that he has been hampered by lack of proper space at 
places convenient for the prosecution of his work. 

CELLAR WORK AND FOUNDATIONS. 

The next visit finds the excavation of the cellar well under way. 
The earth has been removed, care being taken to make the outside walls 
conform to the dimensions of the foundation, and the cellar dug to the 
bottom for a great part of its extent. We proceed at once to examine 
the nature of the soil and find that while it is in the main a good 
coarse gravel, there is evidence 
toward the bottom of a clayey 
deposit which will hold water, 


— 





and indeed, in the trenches di¬ 
rectly under the wall, which are 
required to be eighteen inches 
below the bottom of the cellar, 
there is water standing in sev¬ 
eral places. Remembering that 
the specifications have fore¬ 
seen that the bottom of these 
trenches should slope to the 
corner of the cellar, we direct that the slope shall be made toward a 
hollow in the lot and that the trench shall be extended until it meets 
the surface of the ground in the hollow some thirty feet or more from 
the house. This trench, as well as the slope of the trench under the 
wall, we must make with a very slight pitch lest the run of the water 


Fig. 8. Dry Wall in Trench. 


03 




16 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


should wash away the soil under the wall and cause settlements, and 
for greater security we must see that the lower foot of the wall which, 
according to the specifications, is “ to be laid in dry the trenches , 
is well laid and not dumped or thrown in. (Fig. 8.) These stones 
should be neither large enough to choke 
up and prevent the flow of water through 
the trench nor so small as to be crowded 
into the ground by the weight of the walls 
over them, and it will be well in any case 
to anticipate possible settlement by ram¬ 
ming the first layer of stones well into 
the bed of the trench. In a case where 
the nature of the soil seems to be some¬ 
what soft or the weight of the building 
is to be more than usually heavy, it may 
be desirable to start the walls on broad 
— footing stones carefully bedded upon the 
Fig. 9. Footing stone. bottom. In this case it will be necessary 

to make the drain entirely outside of the 
wall, where it may be made of tile or stones. Indeed, but for the 
added expense of excavation and the increased cost of large footing 
stones, this method would be preferable in all cases. (Fig. 9.) 

If on the completion of the excavating there should be found any 
wet spots in the cellar bottom, these must be connected by trenches 
filled with stone chips, with the main drain under or outside of the 
wall and in extreme cases the whole cellar bottom under the con¬ 
crete should be filled with loose stones for about one foot of depth. 

Cesspool and Drains. In connection with the excavation of 
cellar we should take up the matter of a cesspool, provided there is 
no sewer connection available. Here we will have a choice of meth¬ 
ods. In a great many cases where all danger of contamination of 
wells is obviated by a city or town water service, the cheaper method 
of a leaching cesspool may be adopted. 

Leaching Cesspool. This consists of a circular excavation eight 
or ten feet in diameter and deep enough to reach to good leaching or 
absorbent earth, lined with a dry wall of stones laid with open joints, 
and arched over on top with stone or brick forming a dome made 
water-tight, in the center of which should be set a stone, or an iron 



24 


















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


17 


manhole. (Fig. 10.) This may be finished at the level of the ground 
or kept low enough so that it can be sodded over. In good coarse 
sand or gravel a cesspool of this kind will dispose of the sewage 
of a house for a great many years, but eventually the pores of the 
earth will become filled with the deposits and leaching will no longer 
take place. An effective remedy in this case may be adopted by 
making an outlet to which a series of pipes laid with open joints may 
be connected, to distribute the waste throughout a system of branches 
laid about twelve inches below the surface where it will be absorbed 
and purified by the soil and growth. 



Tight Cesspool. The other form of cesspool is what is known 
as a tight cesspool and is constructed of hard brick and usually made 
about six feet in diameter and six feet deep from inlet, with walls 
and dome eight inches thick and a four-inch bottom, the whole 
cemented inside and out and made perfectly tight. (Fig. 11.) This 
cesspool will retain the whole of the deposits and must be either fre¬ 
quently emptied, or an outlet made of open-jointed pipe as described 
in connection with the leaching cesspool. This outlet should be 
below the level of the inlet and should have a bend turned down below 
the surface so as to remain in the clear water which will be found 
under the scum which lies on the surface. We find by the specifica¬ 
tions that our architect has adopted a clever combination of these 
methods by building two cesspools, the first of which is a small tight 


25 








18 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


cesspool which will retain all the solid and putrefying matter, and con¬ 
necting this by an overflow pipe with a leaching cesspool built as 
described. The effect of this is that the tight cesspool will receive 
all of the solid matter which may be in the sewage, where it can be 
cleaned out at stated periods; and the overflow being of a wholly 
liquid nature will pass into the leaching cesspool in a comparatively 
clear state and will be absorbed entirely by the surrounding earth with 
no perceptible contamination. 

In locating the cesspools we must see that they are placed low 
enough to allow the drain from house to have a good pitch. This 
drain will be of vitrified earthen pipe and should be laid at least 
three feet six inches below the surface, with an even pitch and 



with the bottom of the trench hollowed out where the hubs of pipes 
will come so that the pipes will lie flat in the trench. Great care 
must be taken in jointing the pipes to be sure that the cement is 
scraped off the inside of the pipes, where a projection would catch a 
portion of any solid matter which might pass through the pipes and 
they would soon become filled. 

Dry Wells. As a part of the drainage system we must provide 
for the distribution of the rain water from the roofs. If our house 
were connected with a sewer we would simply connect the conductors 
properly with the main drain pipe in the cellar, but as we do not want 
this great amount of water to run into the cesspool we will lead it 


26 












HOUSE FOR SUPERINTENDENT OF INDIANA STEEL COMPANY, AT GARY, IND. 

Dean & Dean, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 
























































































































































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


19 


away from the house by means of earthen pipes running from the 
bottom of the conductors to “ dry wells”. These are excavations some 
three or four feet each way, filled with loose stones which will be piled 
around the end of the drain pipes and the whole covered with the 
grading. (Fig. 12.) The location of these wells will be determined 
by the position of the conductors and they must be at least eight or 
ten feet from the cellar wall, and farther away if there is any danger 
of the water finding its way back to the cellar. The waste from the 
laundry trays being of a comparatively clear nature we will dispose 
of in the same manner. 

Cellar Walls. While it is necessary to consider the matter of 
drainage at this time, the actual work of building the cesspools and 
laying the drain pipes is us¬ 
ually taken up at a later period 
and the whole of our energy at 
this time should be directed 
toward the building of the cel¬ 
lar walls. Already the timbers 
for the frame are being deliv¬ 
ered and the contractor for the 
carpenter work is filled with 
forebodings lest he have no 
wall to put his sill on when the 
first floor is framed. We di¬ 
rect the mason to build the 
cellar walls with all the speed that he can, “consistent with good 
workmanship”, and set ourselves the task of following him up sharply 
to see that this is done. The greater part of the stone for the cellar 
walls has been carted onto the lot and we shall do well to look it over 
with the mason, pointing out to him that many of the boulder stones 
are too round and should be split before being used, while some of 
the more slaty stones, which appear to have been recently blasted, may 
have cracks in them which will allow the water to soak in. This may 
be detected by striking the stones with a hammer to judge of their 
soundness by. the clearness of their ringing. The stones, upon the 
whole, are a good looking lot, and it will remain only to see that the 
walls are properly built. 



87 






20 


BUILDING SUFEK1NTENDENCE 


In the first place the walls must be built entirely free from the 
bank so that they are self-supporting (Fig. 13), besides giving an 
opportunity of cementing the wall on the outside as called for. This 
is a thing generally neglected, and yet is much more important than 
that the inside of the wall should be smooth and handsome. The 
ordinary careless way of building the cellar wall of a country house, 
is to lay the wall up to the top of the ground without mortar, of stones 
of varying thickness, brought to a face on the cellar side, and with 
the “tails” of the stone in irregular projection on the outside, some 

partly resting against the bank and 
others barely filling out to the required 
thickness, and the*whole smoothed 
over on the inside by a thin smearing 
of mortar. (Fig. 14.) This is a meth¬ 
od which should be avoided for many 
reasons. In the first place a wall of 
this kind is little or no protection against 
water, for the uneven projections on 
the external face serve to catch the 
water which runs down on the outside 
and to lead it into the inner face, where 
the thin pointing of mortar is very little 
protection. Then, too, any movement 
as of frost in the ground, tends to over- 
Fig. 13. Good cellar Wail. throw the wall by reason of the long 
stones which tail into the ground, and 
often bear upon the soil in such a way that any settlement or heaving 
of the soil will open cracks, and cause the wall to bulge inward as is 
often seen in country cellars. In reality it is more important that the 
outside face of the wall should be smooth and impervious than the 
inside face. Satisfied that the stones which are being delivered are 
suitable for our wall we shall need to give our attention mainly to the 
construction, to the mortar and bonding, to the solidity, and later to the 
pointing. The specifications say that the stones shall be laid in “half 
cement ” mortar. This we interpret to mean equal parts of cement and 
lime, and not half as much cement as lime, as some contractors have 
been known to claim. In slaking the lime for mortar it is important 
that the water, in the proportion of one and one-half barrels to on 



28 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


21 


barrel of lime, should be added in as large quantities as is practi¬ 
cable, as the putting on of water by bucketfuls with time taken for 
stirring between, tends to chill the lime which is already beg* nning to 
heat. After slaking, the lime must stand as long as possible before 
mixing with sand, and the cement should not be added until required 
for use, as it will set in a few hours. This mortar is to be mixed in 
the proportion of one part of cement to one part of lime and eight 
parts of sand, and must be thoroughly mixed, as will be shown by 
the evenness of color and smoothness. To be of good quality, the 
lime should be free from cinders and clinkers, in hard lumps with 
little dust. It should slake actively and 
entirely, making a fine soft paste with 
no residue or “core”. Lime should 
always be slaked in a pen built of 
boards and never on the ground or in 
a hollow in the sand. A pen about 
four feet by seven, and ten inches deep 
is large enough to mix a cask at a time. 

Some kinds of lime, when slaked, 
leave a residue of stones and gravel 
and when this is the case instead of 
the mortar being mixed in the same 
box in which the lime slaked, the mix¬ 
ture is thinned with water and is run 
through a fine seive into another box in 
which the mortar is mixed. If Rock¬ 
land lime is used as is specified in our 
case, this will not be necessary. 

Sand. The sand used, should be sharp and free from dirt, loam 
or other impurities. To obtain this, it is generally necessary to 
screen the sand. For our purpose a rather coarse sand will make 
the strongest mortar. The sand must be carefully inspected and in 
case of any doubt shotdd be tested for purity. One test is by putting 
a handful into a dish of water, when any dirt or impurities will at 
once rise to the top as the sand sinks. Another test is to squeeze a 
handful of wet sand, and, upon opening the hand, if the sand retains 
its shape and soils the hand, it probably contains loam or clay and 
should be rejected. If it falls down loosely without staining it is 



29 










22 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


probably clean and good. The presence of fine loam in the sand 
will make the mortar work more easily and it is sometimes so used 
by unscrupulous builders. 

Cement. There are many brands of Rosendale cement, which 
is the kind called for, and they are so well known that for ordinary 
purposes it is only necessary to see that the casks bear the name of 
the specified brand, and that the cement is fresh and has not become 
crusty from absorbing moisture. The darker colors also indicate 
the better qualities. In case of any doubt, a simple test is to make 
two cakes of about a handful each mixed with a little water and allow 
one to set in the air, while the other is put to set in water. If the 
cement dries in the air with a light color and free from cracks, and 

sets under water with a 
darker color and without 
cracks, it is of a good qual¬ 
ity; but if either cake cracks 
or becomes twisted and bub¬ 
bly it shows a quality of 
cement which is inferior, and 
should be rejected. Cement 
must be kept in a dry place 
as a little moisture will cause 
it to set and it will soon be¬ 
come worthless. 

Cellar Wall. Upon our 
next visit, we find that the 
trenches all around the cellar have been filled and a portion of wall laid 
startingfromthecornerand running some ten feet in either direction. 
Our first care is to examine the lines by which the work is being laid up. 
We note that each line is tied to its proper notch on the batter boards 
and that the men are working to plumb lines hanging at intervals 
from the long lines (See Fig. 7), using the stones about as they come 
to hand, the only preparation being to square the too irregular ones, 
to make a face on them by the use of the stone hammer. We cau¬ 
tion the mason to level off the wall about every two feet (Fig. 15) and 
to keep the horizontal joints as near to a level as possible. We also 
call his attention to the clause in the specifications which calls for a 
bond stone in every ten square feet of wall, and carefully examine 



80 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


23 


the wal] already built to see if this has been done. In a wall such as 
we require, that is, with practically two faces, there is often a tendency 
to build the two faces with long narrow stones and fill in between 
with small stones which are put in nearly dry with a little mortar on 
top to show well. Such a wall has an appearance of strength on the 
faces, but under a heavy load may fail from lacking of bonding. To 
detect this defect in a wall already built, and before the mortar has 
set, a very useful instrument is a steel rod about T \-inch in diameter 
and four feet long. This will show at once, by being thrust down 
into the center of the wall, whether the stones are laid to overlap 
each other or not, and also if the stones in the center are well bedded 
or not, as they will rock and jar when struck with the rod if not 



Fig. 16. Corner of Wall. 


bedded thoroughly. No stone should be set with a depth from the 
face of less than six inches, and all stones should be laid so that their 
split surface is horizontal and breaking joints in the length of the 
wall, as well as through and through, and all angles should be bonded 
alternately, using the largest stones for the corners. (Fig. 16.) 

The corner which has been built, we find to be well bonded, as 
the first corner of any wall is apt to be when stones are plenty and 
near at hand (it is the last corner of a cellar wall which will need the 
sharpest watching), but about six feet from the corner we discover a 
line of vertical joints which runs irregularly but continuously, through 
four or five courses. (A, Fig. 17.) We call the man who is working 
upon this part of the wall, and point out the defect to him with in- 


31 







24 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


structions to take down the wall until he can bond over the second 
course, and we caution the foreman to watch sharply against this sort 
of construction. Another bad practice which some masons encourage, 
is that of filling the spaces between the larger stones with chips or 
pebbles, put in dry, and then smeared over with mortar which is 
more or less carefully worked into the seams. This kind of work 
will be easily detected by use of the steel rod, which we can feel mov¬ 
ing the stones if poorly bedded. The right way is to settle each stone, 
no matter how small, into a bed of mortar either by rubbing with the 
fingers or by tapping with the trowel or hammer. In heavy work 
all large stones should be set with a derrick, as in rolling the stones 
up to their places on planks set up against the freshly laid wall, there 



is not only danger of shoving the wall out of plumb, but the bed of 
chips and mortar which has been prepared is sure to be torn up, and 
there is no certainty that the stones are properly bedded. Satisfied 
with the work which has been done so far, we give orders that the 
filling in against walls be done with coarse gravel or broken stone well 
puddled with water or settled by ramming. 

Underpinning. The next visit finds the cellar wall completed 
up to grade and the excavation filled in to the natural level of the 
ground. While we have no reason to suspect that our instructions 
have not been followed in regard to facing the wall on both sides, 
we nevertheless have recourse to the steel rod. Thrusting it down 
alongside the wall at intervals we do not find any projecting stones, 


32 


























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


25 


and as the digging away of the filling in several places shows that the 
wall is properly cemented on the outside we feel reasonably sure that 
the wall is built according to contract, and proceed to a consideration 
of the underpinning, the portion of the cellar wall above ground, 
which being visible, must be considered from the point of appearance 
as well as strength. A variety of materials may be used for under¬ 
pinning. Long pieces of granite or freestone in one or more courses 
are often used, sometimes an eight-inch brick wall is built upon the 
stone of cellar and often the cellar wall is continued up to sill of the 
same character as below ground, except that instead of being careful 
to fill the face joints, they are left without mortar for about three 
quarters of an inch in depth from surface, to be filled later with 
Portland cement mortar, colored to taste, and rubbed with a tool 
made for the purpose to give either concave, V-shaped, or raised joint. 

It is important to see that the underpinning is carried up to the 
sill the full thickness of the wall, leaving out spaces for girders, with 
the top carefully levelled off at the bottom of the silk 

FRAMING. 

While the walls are being built the carpenters have been at work 
framing the house and are now ready to lay the sills and put on the 
first floor beams. The prepara¬ 
tion of the sill consists in halv¬ 
ing and pinning together at the 
corners (Fig. 18), mortising for 
the door and window studs, and 
notching out for each floor joist 
about two inches down into the 
top of the sill. The sill should 
be well painted on the under side 
as a protection against moisture 
from the wall, but unpainted 
elsewhere to allow of drying 
out, and should be set in a thick bed of mortar. As our sill is to set 
back two inches from the face of the wall, we shall have a chance to 
point up with mortar along the outside edge to be sure that there is 
no chance for cold air to get into the floors at this point. 



83 



26 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Custom allows much variation in the size of the sill, six by six 
being the more common size. Six by eight is called for in our case 
and in some cases the sill is made six by the depth of the joist. W here 
large sizes of timber are easily obtainable, this method is to be com¬ 
mended. In the first place the greater depth of timber will span all 
openings that are likely to occur in the cellar wall, again, the equal 
depth of the *sill and joists leaves no space connecting the cellar with 
the vertical wooden wall and prevents circulation of fire or vermin 
without recourse to brick filling, (Fig. 19.) The sill may be bolted 
to the wall, but this is not usual except for light framing in exposed 

situations. After the sills are set, the 
next timbers to be put on will be the 
girders which support the inner ends of 
the floor beams. These are usually 
6 X 10 inches or 8 X 10 inches for the 
floors of a wooden house; in our case 
8 X 10 inches, and they are generally 
set under the bearing partitions of the 
house, and supported by brick piers 
or iron columns in the cellar. These 
piers or columns are generally not set 
until after the heavy floor beams have 
been put on as they would be liable to 
be knocked over in handling the heavy 
timbers, so these timbers are usually 
supported by shores until the piers are 
built. 

The piers of the height of an ordinary house cellar should be 
12 X 12 inches, spaced, according to the size of the girders, from seven 
to nine feet apart. 

In their vertical position, the girders may be set flush with the 
floor timbers, in which case each joist is framed into the girder, or 
they may be dropped to allow the joists to rest on top, usually notched 
an inch on to the girder. (Fig. 20.) The advantages of the flush 
framing are that the shrinkage of wood at each end of the joists is 
equalized, that circulation of fire by means of the interior partitions is 
prevented, and that the girder does not take head room out of the cel¬ 
lar. The advantages of the dropped girder are that the full strength 



34 

















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


27 


of the girder is available and that it is possible to run hot air and other 
pipes up in the partitions without cutting the girder. If flush girders 
are used the position of mortises, as well as the position of the mor¬ 
tises in the sill should be examined by the superintendent to see that 




Flush Girder. Fig. 20. Dropped Girder. 


the openings framed for chimneys, stairways, etc., are correctly laid 
out according to the framing plans. Obvious errors will, of course, 
be easily detected but it will save much annoyance later if every 
mortise is verified before the floor is put on. When this is done the 
floor timbers may be set. These are usually two inches in breadth 
and in our case are ten inches deep. Upon these joists is invariably 
laid, in the East, a rough floor of J-inch boards either of spruce or 
hemlock upon which the 
workmen can move to carry 
out all subsequent opera¬ 
tions. It has been the cus¬ 
tom in the West to omit 
this under floor, but the 
saving is very slight and the 
benefits of the double floor 
are many. In the first place 
the under floor stiffens the 
building perceptibly, is of 
great convenience to the 

workmen, and allows the laying of the upper floor to be put off 
until the very last thing. This is an important consideration in 
these days of bare floors and has led to the adoption of the rough 
under floor generally. It is a good plan to lay this floor diagonally 
with the joists as it greatly stiffens the building and gives a more 
even surface upon which to lay the upper floor. 



Fig. 21. Bridging of Joists. 


35 


















28 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Bridging. As soon as the rough floor is laid, and before this, 
if the boards are to be laid diagonally, the floor beams must be 
bridged, or trussed, as it is sometimes called. This consists in cutting 
in diagonally between the joists, strips of wood which- are nailed 
securely top and bottom and cross each other between each timber. 
(Fig. 21.) Some carpenters reason that a piece of plank cut in ver¬ 
tically between the joists will serve the same purpose, but this is not 
so. If the floor is laid square across the joists, the usual way is 
to take up a board along where the bridging will come. The super¬ 
intendent should look out that the 
bridging is well fitted and thor¬ 
oughly nailed, and continuous from 
side to side. 

Exterior Framing. Next in 
order will come the raising of the 
exterior vertical frame, and in this 
relation we will have had a choice 
of two principles. The first and 
more common method is called 
the “full frame” or “braced 
frame” and consists first, of erecting 
at the angles of the building, posts 
4X6 or 4 X 8. Between these 
uprights, at the level of the floors, 
are run horizontal “girts” which 
receive the joists of the second floor 
and into which are framed the door 
and window studs, and at the top of the wall a plate is set in a 
similar fashion. The angles made by these timbers with the posts, 
are braced by diagonal pieces framed or spiked to the horizontal 
timber and post. (Fig. 22.) 

In the other method of exterior framing, called “ balloon fram¬ 
ing,” the girts are omitted and the studs run from sill to plate. The 
usual way of forming the plate in this construction is to spike on the 
top of the studs a 2 X 4-inch piece, and on top of this another 2 X 
4-inch piece, breaking joints and overlapping at the angles. 

Provision for supporting the intermediate floors is made by 
spiking a board 1X6 inches into notches cut in the inside of the studs 



Fig. 22. Brace. 


36 


















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


29 


so that the top of the board will be an inch above the bottom of the 
floor joists, (Fig. 23.) This board is called a ledger-board and is 
one of the weak points of balloon framing, not in the weight carrying 
sense, but in case of fire, as it does not prevent the spread of the fire 
as would a solid girt, being more easily consumed and doubtless 
would let the floor fall. The floor joists should be notched over 
this ledger-board, which should be kept back a little from the inside 
face of the studs to allow space for the mortar to clinch. Another 
weak point is the omission of braces, which if used can only be short 
ones at the top and bottom, and are usually omitted in this kind of 
frame. A substitute for braces sometimes* used, is a stout strip 
usually one inch by three inches cut diag¬ 
onally into the outside of the studs and 
spiked to each. This makes a very strong 
brace but weakens the studding. The fact 
that the studs of a balloon frame run from 
top to bottom, requires that the windows 
should be as nearly as possible over each 
other so that one set of window studs will 
serve for both upper and lower windows. 

The erection of the outside frame should 
be carefully watched to see that the door 
and window studs, at least, are tenoned head 
and foot, that all the braces are put in and 
properly framed, and that all the joints are 
snug and well pinned, the openings in the proper places, and the fram¬ 
ing plumb and rigid. Nothing is more annoying than to find, after the 
outside frame is all up, that a window or door has been framed out 
of place, and although the builder may be obliged to rectify the mis¬ 
take at his own expense, it can only be done by patching somewhere 
and the owner is quite likely to feel that the error might have been 
prevented by the more careful oversight of the architect. As soon 
as the frame is set up, in our case a full frame, which can be set up a 
story at a time (the attic joists only being carried on a ledger), the 
outside boarding is put on. Spruce or hemlock is used for this 
mainly, but it must be mill-planed to an even thickness so as to give 
a true surface for the outside covering of clapboards or shingles. 
(We find that the boarding is specified to be matched and laid diago- 



37 








30 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


nally upon the walls and square-edged for the roof. The reason for 
not matching the roof being that the cracks in the square-edged 
boarding will allow circulation of air under roof shingles and preserve 
them much longer than if matched boarding were used.) 

When the first story studding is set and the girts are on, the 
inside bearing partitions must be set up to give a support for the 
inner ends of the second floor joists. It will not be necessary to 
set up all the studs of these partitions at first, but the partition caps 
should be run and studs set up at three or four-foot intervals and set 
as nearly as possible in their proper places, to avoid doing the work 

over again. As soon as this is done 
the second floor joists can be set and 
bridged and, with the outer walls car¬ 
ried up to the plate and another parti¬ 
tion in the second story set, the attic 

made ready for the roof. At this 
juncture we are approached by the 
foreman who holds in his hand a smooth 
board upon which he has drawn a 
sketch of the attic joists and 
board which he submits for our opin¬ 
ion. We examine his drawings and 
find that he has represented a ledger- 
Fig. 24 . 2 " x s" Ledger. board 2X3 inches notched into the 
studs one inch and up into the joists two 
inches, making the bottom of this ledger flush with the bottom of the 
ceiling furring. (Fig. 24.) 

This method he puts forth as having nearly equal strength of the 
1 X 6-inch which is generally used, and the merit of not presenting 
so broad a surface behind the lathing at the top of the second story, 
which destroys in a measure the key of the plaster. We consider 
carefully all of the features of this method and admitting that it has 
these features to recommend it, we can praise the ingenuity of the 
device. If we were to run heavy cornices at the top of our second 
story we would be inclined to adopt the sketch, but as we shall run 
only a picture moulding in the angle which will be helped rather than 
hurt by the presence of the wood behind the lathing at that point, 


joists may be put on and the building 



B8 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


31 


we decide in favor of the usual way of putting in the 1 X 6-inch 
ledger, but tell the foreman to notch the studs 1J inches deep so that 
there will be a space between the laths and the ledger for a key to 
the plaster. (See Fig. 23.) 

An important matter in carrying 
the outside and inside supports from 
bottom to top is to see that the amount 
of shrinkable timber is as nearly as 
possible the same in both outside and 
inside walls. For this reason the com¬ 
mon practice of setting the partition 
studs upon a horizontal piece laid on 
the under floor should be avoided. 

(Fig. 25.) For instance, in our case 
the amount of horizontal wood in the 
outer wall from the rigid underpinning 
to the bottom of attic joists will be,— 
the sill at six inches, the girt at six 
inches and the upper part of the ledger board above its nailings 
at two inches,—in all fourteen inches of shrinkable wood. If the 
inside partitions were set on a two-inch sole resting on the under 

floor in each story, there would 
be in the inside wall, from the 
rigid piers in the cellar to the 
under side of the attic joists,— 
the girder at ten inches, the two 
tiers of floor beams with under 
floors at eleven inches each, and 
two soles and two caps at two 
inches each,—making in all forty 
inches of wood, the shrinkage of 
which would amount to an inch 
and a half or more as against a 
probable half-inch on the outside 
walls. The result, when the 
house has become completely 
dry, would be that the inner end of the floor beams would be an inch 
or more tower than the outer end, enough to crack the plastering, 



Fig. 26. Right Way of Setting Partition. 



Fig. 25. Wrong Way of Setting 
Partition. 


•9 






































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


32 


and make doors bind in the cross-walls of the second and third 
stories. The remedy for this, is to let the studs of the first story 
stand on the girders, and the studs of the second story stand upon the 
cap of the first story partition, and so on, so that the floor timbers do 
not form a part of the vertical frame. (Fig. 26.) 

This will give an amount of horizontal wood equal to the girders 
at ten inches, and the two caps at two inches each, making fourteen 
inches in all, about equal to the horizontal timber in the outside frame. 
Partitions running through two or more stories which do not carry 
floor beams should be built in the same way. Partitions which have 
no corresponding partitions under them will often occur and will be 
found in two conditions, those running parallel with the floor beams 
and those running across the floor beams. In the former case it will 
be necessary to set two floor beams under the partition spaced far 
enough apart to give a good nailing for the ends of the upper floor 
boards. In the latter case it will be necessary only to lay down upon 
the under floor a sole two inches thick by the width of the studs. 

An important matter in relation to the levelling of the floors is 
to see that all measurements for sizing down of the timbers are made 
from the top of the timber, so that the floor will be level on the top 
and any inequalities in the depth of the joists can be taken up in the 
furring. A half-inch will usually be enough to overcome the differ¬ 
ences in the depth of the joists so that a series of ten-inch joists should 
be set with their tops nine-and-one-half inches above the girder or 
partition cap upon which they rest. 

Roofs. As soon as the attic floor is on, the roofs will be raised. 
In ordinary country houses the roof should be supported where pos¬ 
sible by the interior partitions where they extend down to first floor 
girders over basement piers, in which case no complicated framing 
or truss work will be required. The ordinary form of roof consists 
of a series of rafters supported at the bottom by the plate of the house 
and at the top by the ridge pole. Intersecting roofs are supported 
by larger timbers called valley rafters and these should always con¬ 
tinue up to the ridge. If the rafters are over eighteen feet long it 
will be necessary to support them near their center, this is done by 
partitions or by collar beams spiked across from rafter to rafter. 
(Fig. 27.) In large buildings they are supported by purlins resting 
on trusses or on posts. The spacing of the rafters varies from sixteen 


40 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


33 


inches to two or three feet, twenty inches being the most usual. 

For any roof of less than 30-foot span with the plate securely 
tied, no interior supports will be needed, and above this span, purlins 
should be used. The size of rafters not over 12 feet long should be 
2 X6 inches, from 12 feet to 18 feet 2X7 inches and 2X8 inches, 
and over that length 2X10 inches. On the whole it will be cheaper 
to reduce the length to 10 or 12 feet by means of purlins. An exam¬ 
ination of the framing plans shows that our rafters are about fifteen 
feet long and two by seven inches in size, set twenty inches on centers. 
The roof is a hip roof, that is, a roof which draws in from all sides, 
which is the strongest 
kind of roof, so that we 
shall not have to pro¬ 
vide any special sup¬ 
ports, and shall only 
have to see that the 
proper pitch is given 
according to plans, 
that the valleys are 
properly put in and are 
extended to the ridge or 
to the hips, and that the 
openings are of the 
right size and in the 
right positions. All 
portions of the roof must be well spiked together, the ridges per¬ 
fectly straight and level and in the center, and the rafters all set 
exactly to a line. 

Partitions. With the covering in of the building we may turn 
to the completion of the inside partitions, and these must be carefully 
followed to see that the studs are straight and plumb. Crooked 
studding may be straightened by cutting with a saw on the concave 
side and then wedging the cut apart. All studs which bear an extra 
weight, as at the sides of large openings, should be examined to see 
that they have a sufficient support on the partition under and do 
not come between the studs, in which case a block should be cut in 
under the partition cap, and the same should be done where heavy 
timbers bear between studs. All corners must be examined to see 



41 







34 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


that they are made solid for lathing (Fig. 28), and that provision 
is made for running pipes, etc. If any of the unsupported partitions 
running parallel with the joists are found to have a considerable 
span, so that there is danger of too much sagging, the difficulty may 
be overcome by trussing the partition at a small cost and if by any 
means such a partition is used to support floors or other partitions 
over, this should be done in any case. The studs at the sides of all 
openings are to be doubled, and all openings of more than three feet 
are to be trussed. The head of all openings should be double, with 
the lower piece an inch from the upper so that if there is any sagging 
of the upper or weight-bearing piece it will not affect the lower one 
to which the finish is nailed. All the partitions should be bridged, 
and all sliding door pockets sheathed with end joints secured, so that 
there will be no possibility of a board starting off. The lining of 



sliding door pockets should be set upon heavy sheathing paper in 
such a way as to prevent air drafts from the cellar which are a source 
of great annoyance. 

MASON WORK. 

Chimneys. While these matters are being followed out by the 
carpenter, the mason will have started the chimneys, as the roof can¬ 
not be finished until the chimneys are topped out. The bricks which 
are furnished should be carefully inspected and any that are soft, or 
easily broken by striking together, should be ordered off the grounds 
at once. The specifications call for good hard bricks. If the con¬ 
tractor is honest he will have ordered suitable bricks, and if they are 
rejected the loss will be the dealer’s and not his. Next in importance 
to the quality of the brick is the smoothness of the inside of the 
flues, this is best obtained in unlined flues by cleaning off, with the 
trowel, the mortar which squeezes out of each joint as the bricks are 
laid. In some localities it is customary to plaster the inside of the 


42 


















































•«* 




I. * 





































* 









m 




















. 













































/ 









KlTCrtEN 

14rb"Xi0-0~ 



FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF SUPERINTENDENT’S HOUSE, INDIANA STEEL COMPANY, GARY, IND, 

Dean & Dean, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 

For Exterior, See Page 26. 



























































































































BEDBOOM 

l-t'b" K 10-0" . 




SECOND-FLOOR PLAN OF SUPERINTENDENT’S HOUSE, INDIANA STEEL COMPANY, GARY, IND. 

Dean & Dean, Architects, Chicago, III. 

First-Floor Plan Shown on Opposite Page. 



















































































































Building superintendence 


35 


flues with mortar, but there is always danger after awhile that this 
plastering may become loose and block the flues. Chimney bricks 
should be laid solid in mortar, so that no cracks are left for the pas¬ 
sage of sparks. The best plan, and what is specified in this case, 
is to use flue linings of vitrified clay. These not only give a smooth 
flue, but add strength to the chimney and permit the use of four-inch 
walls everywhere. All ash doors, clean-outs and thimbles should be 
of ample size, and set as the work goes up, and the withes bonded 
into the outer walls every six or eight courses. (Fig. 29.) This will 
not be done unless close watch is kept. 

The rough fireplaces must be formed, with wrought iron bars 
over each opening, and the outside of the chimney must be thoroughly 
plastered from cellar to roof. The 




STUDDING. 


Fig. 29. Chimney Construction. 


topping out of the chimney is to 
be done with the hardest of the 
bricks laid in Portland cement 
mortar, and if any enlargement 
of the chimney is contemplated, 
where it shows above the roof, 
this must be done below the roof 
boards so that there may be no 
overhanging projection of the 
bricks just above the roof, as may 
often be found in old chimneys, 
for any settlement of the chim¬ 
ney, which is liable to occur, will 
leave the top supported by the overhang upon the roof and open a 
dangerous seam at this point. The settlement of chimneys is a 
matter which it is necessary to consider at all times, as it is almost 
certain that there will be an unequal movement between the chim¬ 
ney and the house. If the chimney stands upon a ledge or other 
immovable foundation, the roof will invariably settle a little by reason 
of the natural shrinkage of the wood construction, but more often 
the chimney, by reason of its isolated foundation and the general 
shrinkage of the mortar joints, will be found to have settled more than 
the roof. 

This, as well as the danger from fire, precludes the direct attach¬ 
ment of any portion of the wooden construction, and so the chimneys 


43 























36 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


are generally built entirely free and are secured to the frame by strap- 
iron ties, which will bend enough to adjust themselves to any settle¬ 
ment, either of the chimney or the frame. In the case of outside 
chimneys where protection from the weather becomes necessary, this 
natural movement between the chimney and the house must be 
recognized, and the chimney should be constructed with a projec¬ 
tion of brick in line with the frame so that the boarding may run over 
and break the joint. (A, Fig. 29.) Where the top of a small chim¬ 
ney stands clear above the house for more than ten or twelve feet, it 
should be stayed to the roof with iron rods. Two rods should be used, 
spread as far apart as possible at the point of junction with the roof, 
to give a measure of lateral support to the chimney. Lead for counter 
flashing is to be furnished by the carpenter, for the mason to build 
into the joints of the chimney above the roof boarding, and care must 
be taken to see that the pieces are of good size and are carefully 
cemented into the brickwork at least six inches above the roof, and 
ready to be turned down over the flashings which the carpenter will 
build in with the shingles. Behind the chimney, the flashings must 
be built in to a height that will allow proper room for building a 
saddle, to turn the water to either side. The stone caps for the tops 
of the chimneys will have arrived, and these should be carefully 
measured on the ground, to be sure that they are of the right size and 
that the holes for the flues are large enough, and of the right shape 
and in the proper position. For large chimneys with thick walls, it 
may be necessary to make the stone cap in pieces and when this is 
done, the stones must be carefully tied together with galvanized iron 
or composition clamps. The excessive projection of bricks to form 
the chimney top is a thing to be avoided, one-half to three-quarters 
of an inch to each course being all that should ever be allowed. In 
determining the projection of the top, it must always be remembered 
that the projection at the corners will appear greater than the natural 
projection of the courses, and there will be more danger of finding the 
completed top too large than too small. Projections from the shaft 
of the chimney must be projected on top by a weathering of Portland 
cement, and where an outside chimney is reduced in size the weather¬ 
ings should be of stone. 

Back Plaster. With the topping out of the chimneys the 
mason, who in suburban work is quite likely to be the plasterer as 


44 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


37 


well, should turn his attention to the back plastering if there is to be 
any. This is done in several ways, a common method being to nail 
strips to the sides of the studs and to lath upon these, plastering the 
whole surface between the studs with a rough coat of plaster. 
(Fig. 30 a.) 

Care must be taken to bring the mortar well out on the studs 
and even then, when the studs shrink, there may be a continuous 


BOARDING 


e»oAR.pin e. -n 



FINISHED PLASTER $ 


FURR\MG. £ Finish ED PLASTER 


Fig. 30a. Back Plastering Fig. 306. 

crack along the side of the stud from top to bottom. This, if it occurs, 
will defeat the whole purpose of the back-plastering and is so likely 
to occur that other means are often taken to obtain a better result. 
One of the best methods is to lath the house on the studding and plas¬ 
ter a rough coat and then fur off with f-inch strips and lath and 
plaster again for the finished work. (Fig. 30 b.) 

Fire Stops. In connection with the back plastering, may be 




Fig. 31. Brick Filling. 

done the fire-stopping of plaster or bricks, the principal points being 
to build up on the underpinning behind the sill to the underside of 


4S 






































































38 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



Fig. 32. Horizontal Bridging of 
Partition. 


floor with brick, not only to prevent the spread of fire, but to prevent 
rats from going from the cellar up into the walls and so all over the 
house. On the top of girders the same thing should be done, and if 

they support partitions, the brick 
lYJjj work should be carried up between 

Wif ifnffl - the studs for a distance of three 

courses or more above the floor. 
(Fig. 31.) By repeating this upon 
each partition cap and upon the 
girts of the outside frame, the whole 
house will be cut up into compart¬ 
ments and the circulation of fire and 
vermin materially checked. In the 
case of a balloon frame where no 
girt occurs, it is customary to run the 
floor boards out between the studs 
and to build up on these with the 
bricks. A further precaution and a 
valuable one is to lay a few courses 
of bricks upon the bridging of partitions; this will cause any fire 
which may be started below, to break out into the room, where it 
will be discovered before it is likely to reach the story above. The 
spaces between stair stringers and 
around chimneys should also be pro¬ 
tected by fire stops of brick or plaster. 

Furring and Finish. As soon as 
the roof is on and boarded, the gutters ^ 
will be put on and the roof shingling 
begun. The position of the gutters 
must be carefully noted to be sure that 
the edge is on a line with the roof 
boarding, otherwise the gable finish 
will not work out right. The position 
of the conductors should be deter¬ 
mined, and the gutters set with a 
slight fall toward them, and holes for 
the lead goose-necks should be bored, in order that no water shall 
stand in the gutters. With the completion of the gutters the shin- 



Fig. 33. Diagonal Bridging of 
Partition. 


46 


































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


39 


gling or slating of the roof can be commenced, and before the roof 
is completed the furring of the inside will be taken up. 

Furring. Beyond the setting of minor partitions which were 
not needed for the support of floor beams, the principal work of 
interior framing will be the furring of chimney breasts, and the form¬ 
ing of beams and arches. The position and size of all doors must 
be carefully verified, especial care being taken to allow the proper 
width for door casings where doors come close to the corner of any 
room. When the studs of all interior partitions are set up they must 
be bridged. This is often done by cutting in horizontal pieces be¬ 
tween the studs (Fig. 32); but a better way is to cut in the pieces 
diagonally (Fig. 33). The chimneys must be enclosed by vertical 
studs, usually 2 X 3-inch or 2 X 4-inch, set flatwise and at least an 



inch away from the brick (Fig. 34), with an ample opening left for 
fireplaces, well trussed. All door openings must also have a truss 
over them, and any partitions which have no adequate support beneath 
them should be trussed if the arrangement of doors will by any means 
allow it. 

The ceilings will be cross-furred with | X 3-inch strips, commonly 
called “strapping”. These strips should be carefully levelled and 
straightened, as upon their evenness depends the smoothness of the 
ceiling, and above all it is necessary that the strips are well nailed to 
every joist. Grounds are next set and angle beads for lathing, but 
before any laths can be laid there are a number of things to be con¬ 
sidered. 

Furnace Pipes. In the first place, all hot air pipes which are 
not intended to be exposed must be put in position. If a hot air 
system has been selected the position of the pipes and registers will 
have been marked on the plans, but it frequently happens that in 


47 




















40 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


the execution, changes will suggest themselves or will be required 
by unforeseen circumstances, so that the superintendent should make 
a personal study of the piping at the building. Where it is possible 
to arrange it, the pipes should be run through closets, exposed to 
view, but this cannot always be done, and it often happens that the 
chimney breasts and sometimes the partitions must contain hot air 
pipes. The best and safest way to do this is to make the pipes double 
with at least a half-inch air space between the outer and inner pipes. 
This is expensive and is not generally done, but instead the woodwork 
which comes close to the pipe is lined with bright tin, and heavy wire 
lathing is used in front of the pipes instead of wood laths. Where 
the pipes are carried through the partition or woodwork a sleeve of 
bright tin half an inch larger than the pipes all around should be 
provided as a safeguard against over-heating of the pipes. 

Plumbing and Gas Pipes. Although it is customary now to 
run the plumbing pipes outside of the plaster, there will be some 
ventilation pipes that will need to be provided for at this time. All 
of the enclosed gas piping must be done before lathing. From the 
fact that the gas piping must be carried in almost every case to the 
center of the ceilings, there is need of careful watching lest the cutting 
by careless workmen shall weaken the joists. The specifications 
distinctly state that no floor beams shall be cut into, more than two 
feet away from their bearing, but as this means that all outlets in the 
center of ceilings must be reached by branch pipes between the joists, 
entailing more piping and labor for the gas fitter, there is a great 
temptation to disregard instructions, and to cut the joists for a straight 
run from center to center of rooms. Only constant watching will 
prevent this being done. Care must be taken that the pipes are run 
with a continuous drop toward the meter, to allow the liquid, which 
will always be condensed from the gas, to run off; and for the same 
reason, wall outlets must be piped up from below and ceiling drops 
should be taken out of the side or top of the pipes. The position of 
all outlets must be verified, especially those which are centered in the 
rooms, and they must be set at right angles to walls and ceilings. 
This can be verified by screwing on to each outlet, as soon as set, a 
piece of pipe a foot or more in length and testing with a steel square. 
No “gas fitters” or other cement should be allowed, but all pipes 
should be put together with red lead. The outlets to receive fixtures 


48 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


41 


should be strongly secured to prevent springing or movement in the 
plastered work. 

Testing. When the piping is all in place the outlets are to be 
capped and the whole system tested for leaks, and accepted by the 
local gas company. This test consists, briefly, in attaching to one 
of the outlets a mercury gauge, and then filling the pipes with air 
under pressure till the mercury in the gauge stands to the required 
height to insure tightness, which is usually six to twelve inches. The 
apparatus is then left to stand for ten or fifteen minutes, and if the 
mercury still holds the same level it is safe to say that the pipes are 
tight. Leaks may usually be detected by the sound of the escaping 
air, but often ether is put into a cup attached to the pump and forced 
in with the air, so that leaks, especially in concealed parts of the pip¬ 
ing, may be detected by the odor 
of the ether. Suspicion of a leak 
in pipe or fittings may be verified 
by brushing strong soap-water 
over the place, when a bubble 
will be blown by the escaping 
air. Small pin holes in the pipe 
or couplings may be tamped, and 
if thus rendered tight will remain 
so, but pipes showing a split or 
large hole must be replaced. 

Electric Wiring. All coun¬ 
try houses, unless in very re¬ 
mote situations where there are 
no chances of an electric current 
ever being obtained, should be 
wired for electric lights. The 
usual method is the knob and 
tube system, where the wires, of copper heavily insulated, are run 
between beams and studs on porcelain knobs, and in short porce¬ 
lain tubes where passing through timbers. (Fig. 35.) Although the 
insurance exchanges, employ inspectors and require that every job 
of wiring shall be reported to them and inspected by their men, it 
will be well for the superintendent to carefully watch this construc¬ 
tion to see that all wires are thoroughly insulated and at least 3 inches 



49 



















42 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


apart to avoid any chance of contact, that they are not allowed to 
sag, and that the joints are properly protected by a free use of insu¬ 
lating tape. Upon brick or stone walls, and in all places where 
there is danger of injury, wires should be run in conduits or pipes. 
In this case the angles and bends of the conduits must be made in 
easy curves so that the wires may be easily “ drawn in ”. All wiring 
should be tested when installed and again at completion of the build¬ 
ing, to insure against any mechanical injury. For electric bells, it 
is usual to run an insulated wire secured to the studs by staples, and 
care must be taken to see that bells as well as light outlets are placed 
in convenient places. If the bells are to be operated mechanically 
the wires should be run in zinc tubes, but as such wires stretch and 
break in time, the electric wires are generally preferred. 

0UT5IDE FINISH. 

Before the building is ready for the plasterer, the outside and the 
roof must be made tight. We have seen that the gutters are set and 
primed or oiled to protect them against water; and above the gutter, 
and rebated or tongued into the back, is set the “ shingle facia”, a 

vertical board varying in width accord¬ 
ing to size of gutter and pitch of roof. 
This facia is usually bevelled off on top 
to receive the butts of the first course 
of shingles. (Fig. 36.) 

Shingles. The shingling of the 
roof begins upon the facia with a 
double course projecting a little, and 
from the butts of these shingles are 
measured off the courses of the roof. 
Unless the roof is very steep the courses 
should not exceed four-and-a-half 
inches for the ordinary length of 16 
inches, as cedar and redwood shingles are usually sawn. Cypress 
shingles are found 18 or 20 inches long and are the most durable of 
all shingles, but redwood and cedar, especially cedar, are more com¬ 
monly used. Regarding durability, cypress shingles have been- known 
to have lasted more than a hundred years, redwood shingles from 25 
to 50 years, and cedar shingles from 12 to 20 years. 



50 









BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


43 


Paper. The question as to whether paper shall be put under 
shingles or not, is open to argument. If the shingles are laid without 
being dipped in paint or with the butts dipped only, the presence of 
paper will cause sweating, and, preventing any circulation of air under 
the shingles, will cause them to decay much sooner than if no paper 
is used; but on the other hand if the attic is plastered there is danger 
of damage from leaks and from fine snow sifting under the shingles. 
In the present case the attic is to be unfinished and we will use no 
paper on the roofs. The ridge of a shingled roof is usually finished 
by means of saddle boards nailed over the tops (Fig. 37), but some¬ 
times an ornamental cresting is used. Hips are best finished by what 
is called “ saddle board ” shingling, in which a course of shingles is 
put over the roof shingles laid at right angles with the hip. There 
is little danger of roofs leaking at the ridges and hips, but the hip 
shingles unless well nailed are liable 
to be blown off. The plane surface 
of the roof, if reasonable care is taken, 
should afford no liability of leaking, but 
dormers, chimneys and valleys are 
sources of great danger. The flashing 
against chimneys and the vertical sides 
of dormers is done by means of pieces 
of tin or zinc about 7 inches square 
bent in the middle, so that one half Fi &- 37 - Rid & e Finish, 

will lay in the course of shingles and 

one half turn up against the vertical wall, to be covered by the 
shingles of the wall or by the counter-flashing of the chimney. In 
the Eastern States zinc is generally used for flashings, but in the 
West tin is the common material. In the forming of valleys, two 
methods are followed, that of an “open” or a “close” valley. In 
the former case the shingles are kept apart six or eight inches and the 
valley is made of zinc or tin, often in long strips locked and soldered 
at the joints and running under the shingles from four to six inches. 
The defect in this method of a continuous piece of metal is that there 
is no chance for the metal to expand and contract in its length, with¬ 
out danger of straining the joints and even of starting the shingles 
or slates which are laid over it. For this reason the use of separate 
pieces, the length of the shingles or slates and shingled in with each 



51 




44 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


course, is to be preferred. These are bent, and lapped in the same 
way as the shingles without soldering and are free to expand and 
contract without damage. 

In the case of the “close” valley the shingles are laid close to¬ 
gether at the angle and narrower pieces of zinc or tin are shingled 
into each course. The flashing of roofs is a matter which needs a 
great deal of attention on the part of the superintendent, especially 
to see that wide enough metal is used. Counter-flashings are often 
omitted unless specially mentioned and should always be built into 
brickwork if possible. If not built in, it must be carefully wedged 
into joints which have been raked out, and pointed with cement. 
Every part of the flashing of a roof should be examined by the super¬ 
intendent and it must never be left to the care of the builder or the 
workmen. 

Slating. With slating or tiling greater care is necessary than 
with shingles. Neither slates nor tiles will lay as closely to the roof, 
or to each other, as shingles, and for this reason, the boarding should 
always be matched, and tarred paper always used, as circulation of 
air is no object with slates. The lap of slates should vary with their 
length, always allowing at least three inches head-cover, that is, each 
slate must lap three inches below the head of the second slate below 
it. Tiles are constructed with a variety of joints and laps, each 
designed for the needs of the different forms of the tiles. Both slates 
and tiles should be put on with galvanized nails, which must not be 
driven too hard for fear of cracking and yet hard enough to prevent 
loosening or rattling, and if the cost is not too great, copper should be 
used for all gutters and flashings. It is a good practice to lay the 
first three or four courses of a slate roof above the gutter in elastic 
cement, and also all hips and ridges. 

Window Frames, Following the completion of the roof will 
come the preparation of the side walls to receive their finish, and the 
first thing to be done is to set the window frames. In wooden houses 
the stud will usually make one side of the weight box, and the frame 
will consist only of the “pulley stile” and casing. Sometimes the 
boarding is kept back from the edge of the studding and the casing 
is set upon the studding with a piece of finish or a “ back-band ”, put 
over the joint with tarred paper, or better still, strips of zinc, to keep 
out the water. (Fig. 38.) In case the frame is set against the usual 


52 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


45 


four-inch studding the outer casing will form one side of the groove 
in which the sash slides, but in the other case there will be room to 
put a strip five-eighths or three-quarters of an inch wide inside of the 
casing, moving the sashes in and 
leaving a space for mosquito 
guards. (Fig. 39.) The top of 
the frame must be flashed with 
lead and the bottom of the sill 
grooved, to receive the top of the 
• shingles or clap-boarding, which 
will be begun as soon as the frames 
are set. Pockets of canvas, in 
which the window sill is set, are 
advisable in exposed situations. 

Porch and Piazza. Before the clapboarding or shingles of the 
walls can be completed, the porch and piazza finish must be put up. 
The floors should be framed with the joists running parallel with 
the house walls so that the boards will run in and out, and they must 
also pitch away from the house at about the rate of two inches in 
twelve feet. The tops of the piazza joists should be set about six 

inches below the main house 
and it is a good plan to bevel 
off the tops, leaving only a nar¬ 
row edge for nailing, so that 
the water, which will run be¬ 
tween the joints if the floor is 
open, will find little surface 
to remain upon. (Fig. 40.) 
Sometimes the joists and 
girders are covered with tarred 
paper. The roof of the piazza, 
which is covered with tin, will 
need especial attention to see that it is given a proper pitch and 
that the tin is turned up against the boarding of the house wall at 
least six inches to be clapboarded over. The quality of the tin 
should be examined and care taken to have it painted on the under 
side before being laid, and that the joints are well locked and soldered. 
Blocks must be set on the tin roof and flashed and soldered, to which 



Fig. 39. Window Frame Outside of 
Boarding. 



Fig. 38. Window Frame Flush with 
Boarding. 


53 





























46 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


the balcony posts are to be secured; and where the finish of porch 
or piazza ends against the house, great care must be taken that the 
connection is thoroughly flashed with lead. 

Clapboarding and Siding. Clapboarding is done in sections, 
from staging successively lowered as the work progresses. Each 
section is built upward from the staging, its top board being slipped 
under the lowest board of the preceding section, which has been left 
unnailed along the bottom for that purpose. The term “clapboard,” 
in New England, corresponds to “siding,” as. used elsewhere. Clap¬ 
boards are all quarter-sawed, being cut from the log by a circular 
saw which cuts always toward the center; they are cut four feet long, 
six inches wide and half an inch thick at the butt. Siding 
is of similar section but a little thicker, and is commonly 
sawed the same way as boards, in lengths 
of twelve to sixteen feet. Either clap¬ 
boards or siding make a good w T all cov¬ 
ering, and the best should always be 

Fig. 40. Piazza Joists. quarter-sawed and laid over a good 
quality of sheating paper, which is gen¬ 
erally put on in horizontal layers, each layer being lapped about 
two inches and breaking joints with the paper and flashings already 
put behind the finished work. 

There are many good brands of paper on the market, with very 
little to choose between, the principal qualities required being tough¬ 
ness and soundness. A kind of siding called “novelty siding” is 
often used for cheap summer houses. This is nailed directly to the 
studding without any rough boarding, but the omission of the rough 
boarding—it should be noted—is always done at a great loss in 
strength and warmth. 

Wall Shingles. If the walls were to be shingled, the same care 
would have to be taken as in shingling the roof, except that the 
shingles on the walls may be exposed five or six inches and they may 
be of a quality called “clears,” in which the exposed lower third is 
free from imperfections. Shingling undoubtedly makes a warmer 
coating than clapboards or siding, as there are always three thick¬ 
nesses of shingles to one of clapboards; but the choice between 
shingles and clapboards is generally determined by the character of 
the building and the effect desired. 



54 





BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


47 


LATHING AND PLASTERING. 

By the time that the outside finish has been brought to this stage, 
the inside of the house will have been given over to a new set of 
mechanics, the lathers. The trade of lathing, although a wood 
working trade, is in most localities distinct from the trade of the 
carpenter, and the lathers will have come to the building to put on 
iaths and nothing else. For this reason it will be well for the super¬ 
intendent to see personally that all of the furring has been completed 
and done properly. Walls, ceilings and soffits should be carefully 
examined to be sure that their surfaces are true, level and plumb; 
chimney breasts and projections of all kinds tried with a square to 
see that all angles are true, corners must be examined to see that nail- 
ings are provided where the laths are to make an angle, and grounds 
and corner beads set wherever necessary for nailings, or for a finish. 

Corner Beads. The use of corner beads is a matter of custom, 
being general in New England, and more rarely used in the West. 
In recent years the use of metal corner beads has become common, 
and these are to be preferred where a sharp corner is desired. Either 
a wooden or metal corner bead should be used, as it results in a saving 
of time to the plasterer, and being set and rigidly secured by the 
carpenter while furring the house, a plumb and square corner is 
assured. The superintendent should see that all beads are in one 
length, and that they are set plumb and square. Especial attention 
must be paid to arches, since the perfect shape of the arch is deter¬ 
mined by the accuracy of the beads, and it will be difficult to remedy 
any defects after the plaster has been applied. 

Lathing. Being satisfied that the rough work has been put 
in place correctly, the lathers are set to work, and it will be well to 
visit the building before much of the lathing has been done, to see 
that the laths are given the requisite number of nailings, and are 
spaced properly. Three-eighths of an inch apart is the right width, 
but there is generally a tendency to put. them too near together, in 
which case the mortar will not press through and form a sufficient 
key. If spaced too far apart the wet mortar will not sustain its own 
weight. The matter of breaking joints is another important matter, 
the usual way being to break joints every sixth course (A, Fig. 41), 
but a better ceiling is obtained by breaking joints at every lath. Over 


55 



48 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


door and window openings the laths must extend at least to the next 
stud beyond, to prevent cracking (B). The direction of the laths 
must never be changed, and this is a point which will need to be 
remembered, as there is a great temptation to fill small spaces which 
occur with laths running diagonally or otherwise, even if they come 
at right angles to the other lathing (C). This must not be allowed, 
as cracks are sure to appear where the change in direction occurs. 
The laths themselves should be well seasoned and free from large 
or black knots, bark or stains. Bark, which is usually found on the 
edges, is a serious defect, and any laths showing this should be pulled 
off and fresh laths replaced, as it will invariably cause a stain in the 
plaster. 


n n h n n 



C 1 

DOOR. OPENING 


Fig. 41. Lathing. 


Metal Laths. The use of metal lathing is continually in¬ 
creasing and is a practice which should be encouraged even for wooden 
houses. This form of lathing holds the plaster more firmly and is 
not so liable to crack or sag, and it is almost impossible to detach it 
even if soaked by water. Added to this are the fire-resisting qualities, 
which render the use of metal lathing always advisable for the soffits 
of stairs in public buildings, under galleries and over all hot air pipes 
enclosed in partitions. Metal laths should always be used where 
wooden walls connect with brick walls or chimneys, and wherever 
a solid timber of any size is to be plastered over, a strip of metal 
lathing covering the timber and lapping well on to the adjoining 


66 



































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


49 


wooden laths, will tend to prevent cracks which will occur if wooden 
laths only are used. For exterior plastering galvanized oi painted 
lathing should be used, furred at least seven-eighths of an inch from 
the boarding. 

Plastering. With the completion of the lathing the house will 
be ready for the plasterer. Already the mortar will have been mixed, 
and, piled in large stacks, should have been standing for a week or 
more. The sand and lime having passed the same scrutiny and tests 
which we employed when making the mortar for the mason-work, 
the only thing necessary will be to see that the mortar is well mixed 
and tempered and that hair of the proper amount and quality is 
added at the proper time. 

Mixing. For the best result the lime should be thoroughly 
slaked at least twenty-four hours before adding the hair, which must 
be thoroughly beaten up and mixed with the lime paste with a hoe, 
and the necessary amount of sand added. This mixture should 
then be stacked outside of the building as long as possible before 
being used, in our case at least ten days. When ready for applying 
small quantities of this mixture are wet up with water to the proper 
consistency, tempering, this is called. Unless particular care is 
taken the sand and hair will be added as soon as the lime is slaked 
as it is much more convenient to do; but this should not be allowed 
as the lime does not always get wholly slaked and the steam and heat 
of the slaking lime will burn the hair and destroy its strength. 

Another practice which should be avoided, is that of mixing 
the mortar in the basement of the building as the steam and moisture 
will penetrate to all parts of the building at a time when the imme¬ 
diate application of the plastering gives no opportunity for drying 
off. In regard to the proportions, about one and one-half bushels 
of hair and three barrels of sand to a cask of lime is a good ratio, but 
the amount of sand will in ordinary cases be determined by the judg¬ 
ment of the mixer, who should be a competent and experienced man. 

applying the Mortar. When the mortar is ready for putting 
on the laths, we must see that the first or scratch coat is well trowelled 
to push it through the spaces between the laths so as to form a good 
key. In ordinary two-coat work this first coat is put on thick enough 
to come within an eighth of an inch or less of the face of the grounds 
and beads, as the finish or skim coat is merely a thin veneer of lime 


57 





50 BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE! 


putty and fine white sand, trowelled and brushed to a hard surface. 
In three-coat work, the first coat is put on about one-quarter of an 
inch thick and when somewhat hard it is scratched with diagonal 
lines nearly through to the laths. As soon as this coat is dry, the 
second coat is applied and brought to a plane with all angles^and 
corners true and plumb. On large surfaces or important work this 
is best done by running “screeds”, which are strips of mortar six 
to eight inches wide and three or four feet apart, carefully laid and 
levelled and plumbed with corners and angles .made true and brought 
to the line of the second coat, which is filled in between these upon 
the scratch coat and brought to a line by running straight edges from 
screed to screed. Upon this second coat is applied the third or 
finishing coat, usually either the skim coat as upon two-coat work, 
or a “white-coat” which is made by mixing plaster of paris and 
marble dust with the lime putty. If a rougher finish is desired, as 
for frescoing, a coarse sand in greater quantities may be mixed with 
the lime putty and floated with a pine or cork-faced float. By con¬ 
sulting the specifications we find that this finish is called for in two- 
coat work to be left “medium rough.” 

Screens. Before the plastering is begun the windows must 
be closed in with screens made of cotton cloth tacked upon wooden 
frames, made to fit the window frames. These are not only to protect 
the plastering from freezing, by which ordinary lime mortar is com¬ 
pletely ruined, but also to prevent unequal drying of the finished 
walls which will occur near the windows in good breezy weather. 

Exterior Plastering. The plastering of exterior walls is done 
to a large extent in Canada and the British possessions and is used to 
increasing extent in the United States. This is best done over matched 
boarding by furring off with seven-eighths inch strips and using wire 
or other metal lathing which later events have shown is better if 
galvanized or painted. The plastering should be three-coat work, 
with one-third of Portland cement for all three coats, the last having 
the coarse sand or gravel if a rough finish is desired. If metal lathing 
is not easily procured a good result is obtained by lathing upon the 
boarding diagonally in Qne-and-one-half inch spaces and repeating 
the lathing diagonally in the opposite direction, all well nailed and 
secure. Upon this we may plaster as upon the metal lathing. 


58 









EXTERIORS OF RESIDENCE FOR DR. GRAFTON MUNROE. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 

Brick, Plaster, and Shingle. House Completed in Winter of 1906-07. Cost, $6,500- 





































































































































































































































COKJtiD 

POROS 


□ 


la. 




^.RESIP£NC£<DR-GE^FTON-MUNRDre 

<51 * FRANK,- CHOUTEAU-E)RDV/M'ABCHJTECr-9-PARX.-6T-£)a5TON<471 



- i+r 1 n+t 


FIRST AND SECOND FLOOR PLANS OF RESIDENCE FOR DR. GRAFTON MUNROE. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 

Exteriors Shown on Opposite Page. 





































































































































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


51 


Concreting. When the last of the plastering has been com¬ 
pleted the concreting of the cellar should be begun so that it may be 
drying out with the plastering. For this the best cement must be 
used, mixed in the proportion of one shovelful of cement to three of 
sand well mixed, and to this added five shovelfuls of screened peb¬ 
bles or broken stone, this should be at once spread upon the floor and 
puddled and trowelled to a perfectly level surface, the whole topped, 
when hard enough, with one-half inch of fat Portland cement mortar. 

Fireplaces. While the plastering and concreting are drying 
out the finished fireplaces are usually built. These are to be of bricks 
and should be built with a splay of 
from six to eight inches to the sides. 

(See Fig. 34.) The back lining is built 
up plumb for about six courses and 
then inclined toward the front until 
an opening of only about two inches 
is left. (Fig. 42.) If a flat arch or 
level bricks are used for the opening 
there must be provided a wrought iron 
bar, or better, two bars which must be 
let up into the under side of the bricks 
so as not to be seen. Care must be 
taken to see that fireplaces are set in 
the exact center of chimney breasts and 
rooms, and also that the face of the 
bricks are set in the required position, 
usually flush with the plaster line, al¬ 
though this may be varied to allow for differences in the form of 
mantel desired. 



PLUMBING. 

't 

As soon as the plasterers have removed their stagings from the 
house, the plumber can at once complete his piping work. In some 
cases it will have been necessary to run the main soil pipes concealed 
behind the plaster, but it is much better if they can be run in plain 
sight. Extra heavy pipe is called for, to be plain and painted on the 
outside with red lead. These pipes should have been tested for sand 
holes before delivery and being plain any imperfections in the casting 


59 
















52 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


may be readily seen, as would not be the case if they were asphalted 
as usually seen. The joints of the soil pipe will need especial watch¬ 
ing to see that they are not slighted in any way. All the joints must 
be made of oakum, driven in tight, and finished with melted lead 
which will be poured around each joint and then caulked all around 
after the pipes are in position. (Fig. 43.) It is never well to com¬ 
plete the joints before securing the pipes in place as the jar of this 
handling may loosen the lead. The pouring in of melted lead will 
not secure a tight joint as the lead shrinks away upon cooling and it 
is necessary to force it again into contact with the pipe. This is the 
object of caulking, and if well done the lead in the joint will show 
marks of the iron all around. 

Lead Pipes. Lead pipes will be most easily examined on 
delivery, when the ends of the coil will be stamped with some figures 
or letters to denote the weight per foot. 
After the pipe has been cut it will be next 
to impossible to tell if it is the right weight 
by appearance. All lead pipe which is not 
new shoidd be rejected, as well as any show¬ 
ing unequal thickness. The running of lead 
pipes should be carefully watched and boards 
should always be put up, against or upon 
which the pipes may be securely fastened. 
Lead pipes which are run vertically should 
be fastened by hard metal “tacks”, which 
are soldered to the pipe at intervals of about 
three feet. Unless this rigid fastening is 
done, the pipes will “crawl” and droop 
downward by alternate contraction and 
expansion. Horizontal pipes may be secured by bands but should 
have a continuous strip of wood to support the entire length, or they 
will in time sag down and form a hollow place, from which the 
water cannot be drawn when pipes must be emptied. The pipe 
should be made to rest upon the straight support and never be 
allowed to take an upward bend in its level course, as a bend of this 
kind will soon become filled with air and will eventually stop the flow 
of the water unless punctured at the highest point. 


id-EAD 

p 


OlA-KUM 


ILM1 

Fig. 43. Joint of Soil Pipe. 


60 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


53 


All the joints in lead pipes should be wiped joints as specified 
and no cup joints, which are more easily made, but not so strong, 
should be accepted. The joining of lead and iron pipes must be 
made by wiping to the end of the lead pipe a strong brass “ferrule” 
which can be caulked into the iron pipe. This will need to be looked 
out for as it is a great temptation to many plumbers to putty the lead 
pipe into the socket of the iron pipe. 

Brass Pipes. For the hot water system brass pipes are to be 
used as they are not affected by the alternate warmth and chill of the 
water, which would cause lead pipes to sag between the supports. 
Indeed, if the additional expense is not too great, it will be worth 
while to make all the supply pipes of brass, which can be obtained 
either plain or coated inside with tin. If brass piping is used it must 
be put up so that the angles and bends are free to move a little, or 
the expansion and contraction will strain the fittings and produce 
leaks. The effect which the water will have upon the pipes is a 
matter which should be considered, but can only be determined by 
local examination, and recommendations as to the use of piping must 
be made with reference to the analysis of the local water supply. If 
brass piping is used it should be semi-annealed and specified as 
“iron size”, that is, the thickness must correspond to that of iron 
pipe of similar size, as distinguished from so-called “plumbers 
tubing”, the use of which is not to be recommended. 

Iron Piping. If the cost of brass piping proves to be excessive, 
a good quality of iron pipe may be substituted where there is danger 
of corrosion of lead or of its bursting by great pressure. Iron pipe 
may be obtained with a lining of block tin, which forms a pure and 
very satisfactory channel, or a galvanized or zinc coating may be 
used which will be less expensive. The same methods of piping will 
be necessary in running iron pipe that we have mentioned in piping 
with brass, and besides, we must take precaution against condensa¬ 
tion which will take place upon iron pipes in warm weather, from 
the fact that iron conducts heat so rapidly. This condensation will 
be so great that it may on occasion trickle down and cause damage 
to paper or decorations. Where there is this danger, the pipes should 
be run in tubes of zinc which will conduct the water to a safe outlet. 
This precaution should be taken, even in the case of lead or brass 


61 



54 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


piping, when costly decorations or papers are liable to injury from 
bursting or leaking pipes. 

The fastening and joining of all pipes should be carefully watched 
to see that they are run in straight lines, with free angles, and that 
hot water pipes are separated by a little space from cold water pipes 
so that there will be no transmission of heat from one to the other. 
All pipes must be run so that they will pitch toward some faucet or 
waste cock, which must be provided in convenient places and in 
sufficient numbers to shut off and drain both hot and cold water 
pipes in any given part of the house, as well as the whole system. 
In New England it is customary to supply the bath boiler from a 
separate tank in the attic, this tank being supplied from the regular 
house service with a ball cock to regulate the supply. The supply 
from the boiler to the various fixtures is made to return again to the 
boiler for circulation, which allows hot water to be drawn at once at 
each fixture. From the highest point of the circulation a small 
“expansion pipe” is run to the tank and turned over the edge to 
dicsharge just above the water line, in order to allow the steam and 
froth from the boiling of the water to escape into the tank. This 
tank should be supplied with an overflow to some convenient fixture. 
Outside of New England the tank is generally omitted and the boiler 
supplied from the house system, but this requires a strong boiler, 
usually of galvanized iron and is not so satisfactory as the expansion 
system. - • ^ 

Waste Pipes and Traps. The waste pipe or outlet of every 
plumbing fixture must have, as near as possible to the fixture, a trap, 
to prevent foul odors and sewer gas from issuing. • The simplest 
form of trap, and in its improved forms one of the best, is the S-trap. 
(Fig. 44.) This consists of a piece of pipe bent into the form of the 
letter S, with a screw in or near the bottom to allow of cleaning out. 
The theory of this trap is that some of the water which passes through 
will remain in the trap, as shown in the cut. In actual use, however, 
if enough in volume runs through to completely fill the outlet, the 
falling water will create a vacuum at A, which will cause the outside 
air to force out the water in the trap until it falls below the bend B, 
thus destroying the seal. If, however, an inlet is provided at the 
highest point of the trap A, the vacuum in the outlet pipe will be 
filled from this source without disturbing the water in the trap. This 


62 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


55 


inlet pipe must, of course, be carried to some main air pipe; and so it 
is customary to run beside the main soil pipe a line of “vent” pipes 
to which the different trap vents are attached, the main vent usually 
starting from the base of the soil pipe and 
entering the same again above the highest 
fixture. A greater danger exists where two 
or more fixtures are connected with the same 
soil pipe. In this case the seal of the lower 
fixture ‘will be broken by reason of the col¬ 
umn of water discharged from the upper 
fixture, creating a partial vacuum in the soil 
pipe and the outer air rushing in to fill the 
void by the easiest way, will force the 
water out of the trap below. (Fig. 45.) 

This is a real danger, and should be guarded 
against by venting the trap as described. 

Another way of guarding against syphonage is to make the trap so 
large that enough water will drain back from the outlet and sides of 
the trap to restore the seal. This is called 
a pot or cesspool trap. City plumbing laws 
in general require the venting of all traps, 
which should be done in all cases. 

Testing. When the waste and air pipes 
are all in place and the connections for the 
various fixtures are put in, the whole system 
should be exposed to an effective test. The 
simplest and most efficient to employ at this 
stage is the water test called for by our speci¬ 
fications. This consists in closing all open¬ 
ings in the pipes and filling the whole system 
with water to the top. This may be done by 
attaching a hose at the bottom or filling 
from the top. The superintendent should 
be on hand to see that the water does not 
lower in the pipe after standing ten or fifteen 
minutes, when the system may be pronounced 
tight. If however, the water level drops it is evidence of a leak some¬ 
where which must be sought out at once. In a tall line of piping the 




Fig. 45. Syphonage of 
Trap. 



63 



















56 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


water pressure will be such that defective joints or sand holes in the 
piping will be discovered by a stream of water, or at least by the 
trickling of water down the pipe. Imperfect joints, in the cast iron 
pipes may be remedied by a more careful caulking, but the presence 
of sand holes can only be remedied by replacing the defective pipes 
which should be subjected again to the test until the system proves 
absolutely tight. After all fixtures are set and all connections made 
another test is usually made. This may be the “peppermint test” 
or the “smoke test”. In the former test a vial of oil of peppermint, 
which is sold sealed for the purpose, is taken to the roof and the con¬ 
tents poured into the top of the soil pipe. A quantity of hot water 
is immediately poured in and the top of the pipe closed by stuffing 
in paper or rags. The vapor, charged with the odor of peppermint, 
is thus unable to escape and will penetrate the whole system. 

All drain, air or waste pipes and connections are immediately 
examined and any odor of peppermint detected will be evidence of a 
defect which must be remedied. Great care must be taken in apply¬ 
ing this test which should be done by separate parties, one outside 
and one inside of the house, and no direct communication should be 
held until the test is pronounced satisfactory. 

Another method of applying the peppermint test is to close all 
vent pipes and vaporize the oil of peppermint in the receiver of a 
small air pump, and then force the vapor into the system under pres¬ 
sure. The receiver is provided with a gauge so that any leak will 
cause a fall in the mercury and can then be located by the odor of 
the peppermint. 

The smoke test is required in our case and is done by closing 
the system as for the peppermint test and forcing into the pipes 
smoke from oily waste or some similar substance by means of a bel¬ 
lows. When the pipes are filled and a slight pressure produced it 
is shown by a float which rises and remains in this position if the 
joints are tight. If there is a leak the float falls as soon as the bel¬ 
lows are stopped and the leak may be located by the issuing of smoke 
from the joint. Special machines are to be bought for making 
these tests, which should be done in the presence of the architect 
or superintendent. 

Fixtures. In general, the ideal of any kind of plumbing fix¬ 
tures consists of a bowl, tub or closet in one piece, supplied by a sure 


64 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


57 



Fig. 


Hopper. 


and quick flow of water, and emptied by a simple and ample dis¬ 
charge. The superintendent should see that the quality and pattern 
are as called for by the specifications, that they are perfect in every 
respect and set up in a workmanlike manner. In regard to closets 
there are several types from which to choose. The simplest of these 
is the “short hopper ”. This consists of an 
earthenware bowl (Fig. 46), and a trap, 
the latter being sometimes made of 
earthenware, and often a lead or iron trap 
to which the bowl is bolted (Fig. 47), the 
contents being washed into the soil pipe 
by a discharge of water all around the 
top rim, which is curled over and perfo¬ 
rated or brought to a narrow opening. 

An improvement of this form known as the “wash down” closet 
(Fig. 48), in which a deeper trap and a larger water area is formed 
than that made by the regular hopper and trap, is a well-known 
pattern. This closet requires a large flush of water to remove the 
contents and is somewhat noisy on that account. To overcome this 
and to assist in the discharge as well, there has been invented what 
is known as the “syphon-jet” closet. (Fig. 49.) In this closet a 

small inlet in the bottom of 
the basin is connected with the 
flush pipe, so that when ihe 
bowl is flushed a jet of water 
shall be projected upward 
which assists in removing the 
contents of the basin and also 
in filling the outlet, which is 
contracted somewhat, in order 
that the flow of water may fill 
it completely and produce on a 
large scale the vacuum as pre¬ 
viously described in relation to the S-trap, so that the pressure of 
the air upon the water in the basin helps to push out the contents. 
An objection to the jet is found in houses which are to be left unoc¬ 
cupied during the winter, since the water 'which is to be thrown out 
to form the jet remains in the bowl even when the trap has been 



65 












58 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


emptied, and requires especial attention. Another form of syphon 
closet produces the syphonic action without the jet by making a sud¬ 
den turn in the outlet pipe, which causes the flush of water to com¬ 
pletely fill the pipe and produce a vacuum with the same result as 
described. A type of closet called the “ washout ” closet was formerly 

much in vogue (Fig. 50), but 
it is not so positive in its action 
as the others described, and is 
less popular than formerly. 

Connections and Vents. 
Close attention should be paid 
to the connection between the 
closet and the soil pipe as this, 
except in the case of the hopper 
closet with metal trap, will 
come on the sewer side of the 
Fig. 48. Wash-Down Closet. trap and must be made abso¬ 

lutely tight. Some of the best 
closets are constructed so that the connection shall be under water 
and any leak will at once betray itself. (A, Fig. 48.) Another pat¬ 
ented connection retains about a pint of water in a ring where the 
connection is made, which will appear upon the floor if the connection 
is not perfect. The connection 
from this point to the soil pipe is 
usually made with a lead bend, 
which is caulked, by means of a 
brass ferrule, into the soil pipe. 

All closets should be provided 
with a “local vent” outlet, a tube 
extending from the upper part of 
the basin to which a galvanized 
pipe may be attached and carried 

to the nearest warm flue for the 

* 

ventilation of the basin, and all Fig. 49. syphon-jet closet, 

traps, especially where the dis¬ 
charge of higher fixtures may create a vacuum in the soil pipe, 
should be vented to the main stack of vent pipes. 




66 

























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


59 


Tanks and Flushing. The usual way to provide for a sure 
supply of water to flush out the closet has been to fit up over it a 
copper-lined tank supplied from the house service and regulated by 
a ball cock. The operation of flushing the closet is performed by 
pulling a chain or rod which raises 


a heavy plug from the upper end 
of the flush pipe and causes a more 
or less prolonged flow of water, 
when the plug again seats itself 
and the tank is refilled. (Fig. 51.) 
This simple operation in itself is 
productive of considerable noise 
and there are on the market many 
devices aimed to secure an ample 
flow with a minimum of noise. 
Another form of tank, and espec¬ 
ially valuable where height is lim¬ 
ited is called the “ low down ” tank, 
power of gravity is made up by en 
very satisfactory in their operation. 



(Fig. 52.) In these the loss of 
rging the supply and they are 
A newer and increasingly pop¬ 




ular form of flushing closets is by means of a valve which delivers a 
quantity of water directly from the general service, or from a special 
supply, and then closes automatically. 


67 




































60 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



Fig. 53. Plug and Chain. 


These valves are put upon the market by different dealers under 
various names, but are about all identical in principle. These valves 
have been formerly used where many closets are to be supplied or 
where the presence of any kind of tank is undesirable, but are coming 
more into favor for general usage. 

Bowl and Tub. Not so much 

choice is to be found in the selec¬ 
tion of bowls and tubs. Of the 
former the main difference is to be 
found in the overflow and waste. 
These appliances have advanced 
from the old fashioned plug and 
chain (Fig. 53), to the most advanced 
form of outside connections (Fig. 
54), which is the pattern called for 
by our specifications. In the choice 
of a modern tub we may range from the ordinary roll-rim enamelled 
iron tub with painted exterior, which is excellent in all respects, 
through the various stages of finish and pattern to the solid porce¬ 
lain tubs of luxurious design and finish. Porcelain goods are mar¬ 
keted in three grades with a great variation of price, from A, which 
is absolutely perfect in every 
respect, to B, which allows 
of slight imperfections and C, 
which is more imperfect, but 
sound and whole. 

Enamelled iron goods 
are put on the market in two 
grades, “guaranteed” as to 
the enamel, which goods will 
be replaced by the manufac¬ 
turer if the enamel does not re¬ 
main perfect for a reasonable 
time, and “ unguaranteed, ” which are taken at the purchaser’s risk. 

Cocks. The choice of cocks for the fixtures will lie between 
two kinds, the “ground” cock and the “compression” or “screw 
down” cock. The former consists of a ground plug through which 
is put a hole in line with the aperture, which is opened and closed by 



Fig. 54. Outside Connection for Basin. 


68 


















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


61 


turning the plug so that the hole is in the range of the bore when 
open, or across the bore when closed. (Fig. 55.) Although simple 
and positive in action this form of cock is open to the objections that 
when in constant use the plug and socket will become worn, especially 
if the water contains any sand or grit, and if used only occasionally 
the adjacent parts become corroded and 
the plug will refuse to turn. A better 
form is the compression cock (Fig. 56), 
in which the spindle is screwed hard 
down upon the opening and is given a 
perfect contact by means of a washer of 
leather or composition, which can be 
easily renewed when it becomes so much 
worn that it allows the cock to leak. In 
general the cocks in bath room and china closets should be nickel 
plated, while the cocks and piping of kitchen and laundry will be 
more satisfactory if of polished brass. The cold water cock of 
these fixtures, and of the pantry sink as well, should have a hose 
nozzle termination. 

When the plumbing fixtures have been installed, the superin¬ 
tendent should see that they are properly 
protected, from accident or abuse, until the 
owner is ready to assume the care of the 
house. 



° PCN-(^) (j ) 

CL O.SEt)-»^^ ( ) ) 

Fig. 55. Ground Cock. 



HEATING. 

While the plumbing work is being done, 
another set of men have been putting in the 
heating apparatus. 

Selection. The selection of the heating 
apparatus will depend upon local custom, 
expense and personal preference. Three 
principal methods present themselves with 
some special features to recommend each. These are the hot air 
furnace, the hot water heater, and the steam boiler. The simplest 


Fig. 56. Compression Cock. 


and least expensive in the cost of installation is the hot air furnace 
(Fig. 57), which also has the merit of introducing a continuous supply 
of warmed fresh air into the house. Next in cost of installation, is 


69 

























62 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


the system of direct steam heating; when once installed the cost of 
maintenance is less than the hot air furnace. This is due in part to 
the fact that in direct steam heating, the already tempered air of the 
rooms is simply raised to the desired warmth, and fresh air must be 
supplied by other means. This system has the advantage of being 
more easily adapted to the heating of distant parts of the house, and 
is positive in its action at all times. 



Of greater cost to install, but with some advantages in main¬ 
tenance, is the system of direct hot water heating. This is similar 
to direct sieam except that hot water circulates throughout the system 
instead of steam and herein is one advantage due to the ease with 
which the temperature can be regulated. 

Steam is generated by the raising of water to a temperature of 
212 degrees F., and so the radiators of a steam heating system are 


70 

















































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


63 


always at about the same temperature, and regulation of the heat is 
secured by shutting off and turning on the steam at intervals, while 
with hot water the radiation will be regulated by the temperature of 
the water which is in circulation all the time. This is a distinct ad¬ 
vantage in mild weather as it allows of a smaller fire and a correspond¬ 
ing reduction in the consumption of fuel. 

In the selection of a heater the most important thing is to be sure 
that the heater, whether hot air, hot water or steam, is amply large 
enough to do the work. Our client has decided to heat his house by 
means of hot air and we have advised him to put in a furnace which 
contains a large air chamber in order that the rooms may be supplied 
with a large quantity of warm air, rather than a smaller quantity of 
intensely hot air. 

Furnace. For economy of fuel we find recommended a furnace 
of the type known as indirect draft . In this type the heated gases 
are ordinarily obliged to pass dowmward to a radiating chamber at 
the base and thence upward again before escaping into the chimney, 
thus giving off a large proportion of their heat. Among other points 
to be considered in the selection of the furnace is the grate, which 
should be of a pattern that will allow of easy disposal of the ashes 
and clinkers without much disturbance of the fire. The construction 
of the fire pot is of great importance in the choice of the furnace, and 
here the choice will lie between a heavy cast iron pot, and a thin 
wrought iron or steel pot with a lining of fire bricks. The cast iron 
pot has the advantage of continuing to give off considerable heat 
when new coal is put on, while the brick linings allow the furnace *'• 
cool off more while the fire is dull. Other points to be desired are 
a large combustion chamber, as the space above the fire is called, 
and ample heating surfaces, so arranged that they will not become 
deadened by soot. 

Cold Air Box. The furnace, which has been selected besides 
these points, on account of the smoothness of its castings and the 
evidently workmanlike construction of its joints and working parts, 
is made to set over a circular pit into -which the cold air box runs. An 
important feature is the size of the cold air box which should be of a 
capacity nearly equal to the combined area of the piping. About 
one-sixth less is the close rule as the cold air will expand about that 
amount on becoming heated. Unless the supply from the cold air 


71 



Building superintendence 


64 V 

box is ample there will be danger that the long pipes will draw from 
the shorter pipes, or that the general flow will be weak and irregular. 
The opening of the cold air box is usually placed on the north or west 
side, as the coldest winds generally come from those directions, but 
a better way is to carry the cold air box "completely across the cellar 
with a connection to furnace at right angles, so that the furnace may 
draw an equal supply without regard to the direction of the wind. 
By this means we shall avoid the very disagreeable feature which all 
who have heated by furnace in the usual way will have experienced, 
of finding that when the wind is high from the side where the cold 
air is taken, the chances are that the air will be driven so rapidly 
through that it does not get sufficiently heated, but comes in cold 
gusts from the registers. On the other hand, when the wind is strong 
from the side opposite the single cold air opening, the suction from 
the lee side of the house will often cause the air to flow down the 
registers and out of the cold air box, where there is danger of the 
already heated air becoming hot enough by reheating to set the cold 
air box on fire, if it is of wood. To guard against a possibility of 
this, it is best if possible to make all air ducts of galvanized iron, 
which is safer but unfortunately more expensive. In certain localities 
this metal construction will be required by the building laws, and 
is to be recommended in all cases. 

Location. In locating the furnace care should be taken that 
the pipes are of about the same length, any differences should be 
made in favor of pipes running north or west. The smoke pipe 
should be run as directly as possible and should never come nearer 
than eight inches to the floor beams overhead. Care must be taken 
where the pipe enters the flue that the connections are tight, and that 
the pipe is not pushed in so far that it cuts off the area of the flue. 

Supervision. Beyond seeing that the apparatus, the piping 
and the registers are ample in size and properly heated, the superin¬ 
tendent should watch carefully to see that there is no danger from 
fire. All pipes which are run in concealed places should be double, 
or at least well protected by bright tin or asbestos covering and the 
use of wire for lathing over them. The furnace should have over it, 
a circular shield of metal or else plastering on wire laths for an ample 
space on the ceiling. In running the pipes, sharp bends and sudden 
contraction or distortion of the pipes must be avoided, and free en- 


72 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


65 


trance of pipes to the register boxes must be provided in all cases. 
The practice of topping pipes or running one pipe to supply two 
registers, is productive of continual annoyance, as it is almost certain 
that one register will get the greater part of the heat at the expense of 
the other. The registers should always be set in borders of slate or 
soapstone, or in the iron rims which are provided and they should 
be free in action and tight when closed. 

STEAM HEATING. 

Another efficient method of heating for country houses, is by 
direct steam radiation. This consists in circulating steam through 



radiators or coils placed directly in the rooms and halls to be heated. 
This may be done under high or low pressure, but the low pressure 
gravity return system is generally used for house heating, a pressure 
of from two to ten pounds being rated as “low pressure”. 

Piping. Three systems of piping are used in this form of heating 
called the “two-pipe system”, the “one-pipe relief system”, and the 
“one-pipe circulating system”. In the two-pipe system the main 
pipe is taken from the top of the boiler and carried by branches 
along the cellar ceiling, pitching gradually down until all of the 
“risers” have been taken off, when it drops down and returns with 


73 






















































66 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


a slight pitch to the boiler, below the water line. (Fig. 58.) This 
is called a “wet” or “sealed” return. Sometimes the return pipes 
are run overhead and this is called a “dry” return. This dry return 
is more productive of noise in the pipes than the wet return and is not 
so often used. In either case one set of pipes is run from the main 
supply pipe in the cellar to the different radiators and another pipe 
carries the condensation from the radiators to the return pipe. This 
requires two sets of pipes, valves, and connections and is more ex¬ 
pensive than the one-pipe systems which are generally used. 



One=Pipe Relief System. In this system the arrangement 
of the cellar piping is the same as in the “wet” return previously 
described, but the supply to the radiators consists of but one pipe, 
taken off from the main supply in the cellar, the steam flowing in, 
and the condensation draining out, through this single pipe to the 
main and thence through frequent “drip pipes”, to the return pipe, 
near the cellar floor. (Fig. 59.) If the return pipe in the cellar is 
run overhead, as in the “dry” return system the drip pipes should 
be connected to the return main by a loop falling below the return, 
thus forming a trap and preventing the steam from flowing directly 
into the return. 


74 











































\ 


LAKE AVE. 



LAYOUT OF GROUNDS AROUND RESIDENCE OF MR. J. S. HANNAH, AT LAKE FOREST, ILL. 

Shepley, Rntan & Coolidge, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 

For Exterior, See Opposite Page; for Plans, See Page 90 





















RESIDENCE FOR MR. J. S. HANNAH, LAKE FOREST, ILL. 

Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 

Built in 1895. Cost $17,000, Including Stable Shown on Page 74, Vol. II. The Staircase is Made a Feature on the Exterior. Shingles of Walls Stained a Dark 

Brown; Roof Shingles Stained Green. For Layout of Grounds, See Opposite Page; for Plans, See Page 90. 


































BUILDING SUPEKINTENDENCE 


67 


One=Pipe Circuit System. In this system the main supply 
is carried to the ceiling of the cellar and there makes a complete 
circuit of the building at a downward pitch and connects again with 
the boiler below the water line. (Fig. 60.) From this circulation 



Fig. 60 . One-Pipe Circuit System. 


pipe single risers are taken to the radiators, and the condensation 
flows back through the same pipes to the circulation pipe, and is 
carried along with the steam and returned to the boiler. This circu¬ 
lation pipe should be of large size and with a good pitch all the way. 

In all single-pipe systems the 
piping must be larger than in the 
double-pipe systems, as the steam 
and the returning water are flowing 
through the pipes in opposite di¬ 
rections at the same time. This 
may be obviated by running a single 
riser to the top of the building and 
then branching out to supply the different radiators by single pipes 
run back to the basement. In this case the steam and water flow 
in the same direction and for large work this is often done. 

Valves and Connections. Careful examination should be 
made of the valves and pipe connections to see that they are efficient 



75 

























































68 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


and properly applied. Many styles of valves are available, and only 
well known or well tested patterns should be allowed. Of air valves 
for steam radiators the simplest form is the “pet cock”, a screw valve 
operated by hand (Fig. 61), but there are several forms of automatic 
valves on the market which will allow the escape of cold air from 
the pipes, but are instantly closed as soon as affected by the hot steam. 
This is done by the expansion of a metal part which closes the orifice. 

Radiators. The form of steam radiator in general use is the 
east iron radiator (Fig. 62). This consists of a series of loops con¬ 
nected'at the bottom. The 
steam entering at one end forces 
the air out of the air valve 
placed about midway of the last 
section. The two end sections 
are of the same internal pat¬ 
terns as the others but are cast 
with legs. 

Pipe radiators (Fig. 63) are 
often used and, where design is 
not an object, the use of circu¬ 
lation coils of piping may be per¬ 
mitted. 

Boilers. Many of the ordi¬ 
nary types of steam boilers are 
used for steam heating and in 
addition to these there is a cast 
iron sectional boiler which is used for dwelling houses to a great 
extent. (Fig. 64.) The main thing is to select some well-known 
type and to see that it is carefully set, with all attachments, which 
will usually be described in the contracts. This method of direct 
radiation lacks the advantage of the introduction of fresh air into 
the house, but, if care is taken to provide for this by other means, it 
is economical and positive in its action. The main point to be seen 
is that heater, pipes and radiators are amply large, and that the radi¬ 
ators are well placed and supplied by carefully graded pipes, tightly 
and neatly connected. Cellar pipes should be covered with some 
of the patented sectional pipe coverings, and radiators and all pipes 
which are exposed to view may be coated with bronze of a desired 



Fig. 62. Cast-Iron Radiator. 


76 












BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


69 


color. Where pipes pass through floors or partitions they should be 
protected by sleeves three-quarters of an inch larger than the pipes, 
and collars should be neatly placed around the pipes at the floor and 
ceiling, or on each side of the partition, 

HOT WATER HEATING. 

Another method of heating is by a similar application of direct 
hot water radiation. This consists in circulating hot water through 
radiators, which are placed in the rooms as in the case of direct steam 
heating. The hot water is conducted from the main heater in the 



Fig. 68. Wrought-Iron Pipe Radiator. 


cellar through the pipes and radiators, and the air is warmed by the 
direct radiation from these sources. The principle of this circulation 
is found in the difference in density and volume between hot and cold 
water. Water is at its greatest density at about 39 degrees F. When 
heated its density decreases and its volume increases, so that as soon 
as the fire in the boiler is started the circulation begins, and the water 
becoming lighter flows up through the pipes and radiators giving off 
its heat, until becoming colder and heavier it flows back through the 
return pipes to the heater. This process is continuous as long as 


77 
































70 


B UILDlNG SUPERINTENDENCE 


any heat is applied to the water in the boiler, the velocity of flow 
depending upon the difference in temperature between the supply 
and return, and the height of the radiators above the boiler. 

Hot Water Piping. The system of hot water piping consists 
of a free circulation of water from the heater to the radiators and 
back to the heater again. The supply pipe is taken off at the top 
of the heater and main and branches are run with an incline upward, 
the return pipes being parallel to these and connected with the bottom 



of the heater. Risers are taken off the tops of the mains and return 
pipes connected to the return mains in a like manner. (Fig. 65.) As 
this system depends upon the force of gravity to keep up its circula¬ 
tion an expansion tank (Fig. 66) must be provided, high enough 
above the highest radiator to insure free circulation, and the pipes 
should be run so that any radiator may be shut off without interfering 
with the general circulation. This tank should be supplied with a 


78 








































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


71 


glass gauge and an overflow to some convenient place, and an open 
vent pipe should be taken from the top. The connection from the 
heating system enters at the bottom and an automatic connection 
should be made with the main water supply. A water connection 
should also be made at the heater to be used when the system is first 
filled, as by this means the air is driven upward and discharged 
through the vent on the tank. 

The expansion tank should be large enough to contain a gallon 
of water for every forty square feet of radiation. 



Fig. 65. Piping for Hot Water Heating. 


Valves. Special valves are made for use with hot water radia¬ 
tors, the main advantage being a device for quick closing, a half turn 
being usually sufficient to open or close the valve. Connections with 
the radiators may be made at the top or bottom, the return pipe being 
always at the bottom. Only one valve is necessary to stop the flow 
of water through the radiator and this is put on the supply pipe, the 
return connection being made by a union elbow. 

The ordinary “pet cock” is generally used for an air valve, but 
there are several forms of automatic valves which are operated by 
a float which allows the air to escape when the water line is lowered 
but closes upon the flowing in of the water. 


T9 































































72 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Hot Water Heaters. The heater differs from a steam boiler 
mainly in the omission of the space allowed for steam, the hot water 

heater being filled with water in 
circulation instead of steam, so 
that it is essential that the heat 
should strike the surface in such a 
manner as to increase the natural 
circulation. 

Radiators. Radiators for use 
with hot water differ from the 
ordinary steam radiators in hav¬ 
ing a passage at both bottom and 
top, as shown in the illustration, 
Fig. 67. This is necessary in order 
to draw off the air which gathers 
at the top of each loop. These 
radiators may be used for steam 
as well as hot water and are 
arranged for either top or bottom connections. Sometimes the pip¬ 
ing is so arranged that, instead of running pipes 
to each radiator from the heater, a single riser is 
carried up to the expansion tank from which pipes 
are run to supply the drops to which the radiators are 
connected. (Fig. 68.) In this case the radiators 
are supplied at the top and emptied at the bottom, 
and as the air in this system rises at once to the ex¬ 
pansion tank and escapes through the vent, no air 
valves are required on the radiators. 

Other methods of heating are by indirect steam, 
indirect hot water, and a combination of hot air and 
steam, and the same general principles will apply to 
these methods as to those which have been consid¬ 
ered. The indirect application of steam or hot- 
water is the system by which fresh air is brought 

to each register, after being heated by passing over Fig. 67 . Pipe con- 
.. „ . . ...... nections, Hot 

a coil ot steam or hot water pipes, and while it is waterRadi- 

the most satisfactory of all means of heating, the 

expense of installation and maintenance is a bar to its employment 

for ordinary countrv or suburban house heating 




80 

























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


73 


INSIDE FINISH. 

After the furnace or heater is set and the plastering and concreting 
are thoroughly dry, the inside finish of the house may be put up. The 
door frames, which should have been all ready, will first be set and 
great care must be taken to see that these are set square and plumb. 
If a single rebated frame is used (Fig. 69a), the superintendent must 
see that it is set with the rebate on the proper side of the partition. 
Our specifications call for all inside door frames to be double rebated 
as at b, which not only does away with the necessity of this precaution. 



but has the merit of allowing the doors to finish at the same height 
and width on both sides of the partition and also allows of the door 
being hung on either side. 

Architraves. When the door frames are set the next operation 
will be to set the door and window architraves, called in some locali¬ 
ties door and window “trim”, although “casing” is perhaps the more 
common term. There are two principal methods of casing a door 
or window; by the block casing (Fig. 70a), or the mitred casing. 


81 























74 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


(b.) The block casing is the simpler and less liable to be disfigured 
by shrinkage, as the joints are all straight across the casing, and, as 
this will not shrink endways, the joints do not open. The mitred 
finish is neater in appearance but can be used only with thoroughly 
kiln-dried wood, as any shrinkage will cause the joint to open. Archi- 




Fig. 69a. Door Frames. Fig. 696. 

traves of either kind are usually hollowed out on the back as shown, 
to allow each edge to fit closely to the frame and the plaster, and 
avoid danger of displacement by possible warping or twisting of the 
casing or ground. Plain blocks to the height of the base are often 
put at the bottom of the door casing, called plinth blocks. (Fig. 71.) 



Fig. 70a. Door Finish. Fig. 706. 

The superintendent should watch to see that all joints are carefully 
done, that margins are even on all sides, and that the mouldings are 
securely nailed. The mouldings must be scraped or sand-papered, 
or both, to remove all traces of the milling or planing, the effect of 






























































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


75 


which is to leave marks upon the wood, and these imperfections will 
appear more noticeable when varnish has been applied. No casings 
should be spliced, although long horizontal mouldings such as bases 
and wainscot mouldings will 
have to be spliced, and care 
should be taken to see that 
this is neatly done. 

For painted work it is 
customary to nail the finish to 
the walls and frames with fin¬ 
ish nails, well set for puttying. 

The nails should be driven in 
the quirks of the mouldings 
as much as it is possible. For 
hardwood finish the members 
should be glued together at 
the shop as far as is possible 
and no more nails used than is absolutely necessary. Wainscoting, if 
panelled, should be put together at the shop in as long lengths as 
possible, and painted on the back before' setting, and angles and 
corners should be rebated together. (Fig. 72.) The projections of 

mouldings as well as chair rails should 



be studied in connection with the arch¬ 
itraves to be sure that they are coming 
together in a satisfactory manner. 
Where a dado is used the line of the 
window stools will sometimes be made 
the top of the cap, and in this case 
especial care must be taken that the 
window frames may finish at the same 
level. Where a chair rail only is em¬ 
ployed it is generally set about three 
feet above the floor. 

Bases and chair rails which run be¬ 
tween doors and windows can generally be obtained without splicing. 
Picture * mouldings if set any distance below the ceiling will need 
especial attention to be sure that they are run level and are securely 
nailed. 




Fig. 72 . Rebated Corner. 






























76 


BUILDING SUFEKINTENDENCE 


Stairs. Close attention must be given the stairs to secure a 
satisfactory result. In the beginning the stringers must be examined 
to see if they correspond to the plans in the number of steps, and that 
ample head-room is provided where one flight of stairs comes over 
another. The plans will show the number but not the height of the 
risers, as this can only be determined b;y dividing the whole height 
from top to top of floors, by the number of risers shown. This should 
have been laid out to give for ordinary stairs a rise of about seven 
and one-half inches, and the sum of the tread and rise together should 
make for an ordinary house staircase between seventeen and seven¬ 
teen and one-half inches, so that 
with seven and one-half inches 
for the rise, the tread should be 
nine and one-half or ten inches. 
Another rule is that the product 
of the rise and tread should be 
seventy to seventy-five inches, 
that is, if the rise is six inches, the 
tread should be eleven and two- 
thirds to twelve and one-half in¬ 
ches. For stairways. where the 
space is limited “winders” may 
be inserted (Fig. 73), but where there is ample room, it is well to 
avoid them. 

The question of head-room is an important matter and one that 
is not easily foreseen, so that often costly stairways which are otherwise 
well conceived are sometimes spoiled by too close head-room. With 
floors of the thickness of ordinary dwellings the well-room should 
extend over at least thirteen risers, and where one flight comes directly 
over another, seven and one-half feet in the clear, over the face of 
the riser, should be allowed. 

In the construction of stairs methods differ somewhat. In New 
England it is customary to build the finished work of the stairs upon 
the rough stringer, piece by piece. The treads and risers are brought 
from the shop all fitted and are nailed into place, the risers are first 
put on, grooved at the bottom to receive the tongue of the tread, and 
the tread grooved on the under side and fitted over a tongue in the 
riser. (Fig. 74.) A small moulding is then put in the angle under 



84 

















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


77 


the edge of the tread, and this finish is carried around the end of 
the step in ‘‘open string” flights, where the tread appears at the end. 
(Fig. 75.) The inside or wall edges of both tread and riser are grooved 
on the line of the base, the lower edge of which is scribed to the outline 
of the steps and cut away on the back 
to form a tongue, which, after the steps 
are all in place, is driven into the 
grooves, the stair nosing being cut 
away. This is necessary to prevent 
the appearance of a crack along the 
whole wall end of the stairs, which 
will invariably appear on account of 
the shrinkage of the stairs and base, 
but unless carefully watched it is likely 
to be omitted, as the fitting and tongue- 
ing of the base is a difficult matter. 

In the second or “English Method” 
the finished stairs are put together at the shop and brought bodily 
to the building and fitted to the rough stringers. In this construction 
the wall ends of the steps are grooved into the base or wall stringer 

and wedged and glued. The outer 
stringer, if a close or curb string 
(Fig. 76), is tongued and fitted 
into the treads and risers. This 
method of “housing” is also 
sometimes used when the stairs 
are built at the building. One 
objection is found to the English 
method where the stairs are plas- 
tered underneath, in that there 
is no good chance to fit and wedge 
the finished steps to the rough 
work, but where the underside 
of the stairs are panelled there 
is ample opportunity to wedge the work solid, which is necessary to 
prevent squeaking, a very disagreeable thing in a staircase. In open 
string stairs, before the end nosings are put on, the treads should 
be dovetailed at the end for the balusters, and when these are fitted 




Fig. 74. Tread and Riser. 


85 



























78 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


in, the nosing will make them secure. This should be done in all 
good work, although the general practice is to nail the balusters at 
the bottom. 

Against the sloping rail the balusters may be securely nailed, 
but the rail must be secured to the posts by bolts made for the purpose 

which are let into the end of the 
rail. (Fig. 77.) Where the stair 
rail comes against the wall it is 
better to put a half-post than to 
allow the rail to run into a plate, 
which will be done unless the half¬ 
post is shown or specified. The 
erection of the stairs should be 
closely followed by the superin¬ 
tendent, as there is a great oppor¬ 
tunity to slight their construction. 
If put together at the building, the 
rough stringers should be care¬ 
fully verified to see that the treads 
are level and the risers all equal. 
The cutting of these stringers is a matter of great nicety, and mis¬ 
takes are often made which the workmen will sometimes try to 
remedy by tipping the stringer backward, if it is too long, or forward, 
if too short (A, Fig. 78), or by reducing or adding to the top and 
bottom riser (B). This should be watched 
for and never allowed, as a slight differ¬ 
ence in the height or level of the steps is 
a source of danger. If the English meth¬ 
od is used, especial care must be taken 
to see that the finished work is securely 
blocked and wedged. 

Windows. As a part of the finishing of the inside of the house 
will come the adjustment of the sashes and doors. The sashes are 
held in place by stop beads, which are strips of wood usually one-half 
an inch in thickness and of varying widths, according to the thickness 
of the sashes and of the walls. (Fig. 79.) These stop beads should 
always be secured by screws, as it will sometimes become necessary 
to remove them to adjust or replace the sashes. Special screws are 




Fig. 77. Rail Bolts. 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 79 




Fig. 78. Stair Stringers. 


sold for this purpose, if desired, which have a washer with a horizontal 
slot, which will allow of the slight adjustment made necessary by the 
swelling or shrinking of the sashes, by simply loosening the screws. 
Before applying the stops 
the sashes must be care¬ 
fully fitted and balanced, 
and as they will vary some¬ 
what in weight, the matter 
of a perfect balance will 
require close attention. 

The superintendent should 
see that each sash is so 
balanced that there will be 
no great effort needed to 
raise or lower it, and no 
danger of its banging by 
reason of too much or too 
little weight. He should closely examine the hardware to see that 
it is as specified and is carefully put on. Sash fasts are often badly 
set and each one must be tried to see that it works properly and 
easily. Pulleys should be carefully inspected to see that they are 
as specified. These will probably have been already set in the win¬ 
dow frames when they were received, and 
unless the contractor has paid especial at¬ 
tention to them they are very likely to be of 
an inferior, order. 

The difference between a plated bronzed 
face and a solid bronze metal face is often 
overlooked, and the bearings will be inferior 
if not carefully examined. A steel axle 
pulley may be used for ordinary work, but 
for better service a turned or milled axle is 
preferable. 

For hanging the sashes, cords, chains 
and metallic ribbons are used, but for the 
ordinary sizes of windows a good braided cord is perhaps to be 
preferred, this depending upon local custom. The size and partic¬ 
ular brand of cord should be specified and care taken to see that this 


Fig. 79. Stop Bead. 


87 
















80 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


is furnished. The leading manufacturers have adopted a copyrighted 
device of a spot or name which appears at short intervals upon their 
cord and if noted will prevent any other being substituted. For large 
sashes with no vertical bar, such as are shown in mam rooms of 
our house, sash lifts should be used. These are metal fixtures 
applied to the lower or side rims of the sashes to afford a hold 
for the fingers when raising the sash. In windows as wide as shown, 
with no vertical bar, the usual habit of starting to raise the sash by 
lifting up on the middle rail will result in loosening the putty and 
springing up the rail so that lifts are necessary. These may be of 
the ordinary hook shape, or may be a metal slot let into the lower 
sash. (Fig. 80.) Casement or swinging windows and transoms will 
require special fittings, of which there are a great 
variety, each designed to supply a special need. 

The main thing to be observed is that the ap¬ 
pliances are as simple as possible and that the 
moving parts are noiseless and well adjusted. 

1 - Doors and Trimmings. The last of the in¬ 
terior fittings to be applied are usually the doors. 
These are of two classes, “stock” doors and 
doors made to order. Stock doors are made in 
Fig. so. sash Lifts, certain regular sizes, generally of pine, whitewood 
or cypress, and may be obtained at all times, of 
the dealers. Stock doors are made in three grades, A, B, and C, of 
which, doors of the first quality may be used for the inferior portions 
of good houses, but these, by reason of their being stored for a greater 
or less time, are generally not thoroughly dry and will shrink and 
twist when subjected to furnace heat. The second and third quality 
of stock doors are a very inferior article and should be used only for 
the poorest kind of work. 

Custom=Made Doors. The doors of the principal rooms 
should be made to order. If of pine or whitewood they may be made 
solid but must be of kiln-dried stock and kept perfectly dry. The 
tenons should be made, as specified, with haunches (Fig. 81) and the 
panels put in without bradding or gluing, so as the allow them to 
swell and shrink without cracking. Hardwood doors are veneered 
upon a core of well seasoned pine and should be examined, upon 
delivery, to see that this is done and that the veneers are of the proper 


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< 2 > 



88 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


81 


fril 


-HAUNCH 


Fig. 81. Door Tenon. 


thickness. The veneers should be one-quarter inch on the face and 
at least three-quarters inch on the edges, to allow of fitting. If the 
panels are of great width they should also be veneered, with the grain 
of the core running at right angles to the 
grain of the veneer. Doors which are to 
show hardwood on one side and a painted 
finish on the other should be veneered on 
both sides to prevent warping, which 
may occur if one side only is veneered. 

In the design and selection of doors care 
must be taken that the panels are so di¬ 
vided that the lock, in its normal position, 

will not cut off the tenon of the rail but will come opposite a panel. 
(Fig. 82.) The rails of a door are always tenoned into the outside 
stiles, and if there is a middle stile it is tenoned into the rails (Fig. 
83), so that the tenon at A is an important factor in the strength of 
the door and is often weakened or destroyed by being cut for the lock. 

Hardware of Doors. The hanging and 

_i . ji fitting of the doors is a matter of great nicety 

and should be intrusted only to careful work¬ 
men. The hardware for an ordinary door 
will consist of the hinges, or “ butts”, the 
lock, knobs and escutcheon plates. Double 
doors will need in addition bolts for the stand¬ 
ing part. Sliding doors will be hung on a 
“hanger”, and the fittings must necessarily be 
flush to allow the door to slide into the wall. 
The specification of hardware for doors is 
often made a matter of an allowance, either 
at a certain price per door, or a sum is named 
to cover all the hardware of the doors, leaving 
the selection to the architect or owner. The 
=vj| latter method has been employed in our case 

. and the architect’s knowledge will become 
necessary in guiding the owner to a proper 
selection at the dealer’s, rather than exercising an inspection of 
hardware at the building. In the selection of hinges the choice of 
material will be principally between solid bronze or brass, or plated, 







































82 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


japanned or lacquered iron or steel. If of solid metal the best quality 
only should be used, with steel washers and bearings, as the soft metal 
will otherwise wear out from the swinging of the door. Modern door 

hinges are invariably made in parts, to 
allow of the door being removed without 
unscrewing the hinge, and this is ac¬ 
complished by two methods, the loose- 
joint butt and the loose-pin butt. The 
former consists of a hinge made in two 
parts (Fig. 84), of which the part con¬ 
taining the pin is screwed to the door 
frame and the other part to the door; 
this allows of the door with its half of 
the hinge being lifted off if desired. 
With the loose pin butt (Fig. 85) the 
door is removed by drawing out the pin 
and slipping the hinges apart. Loose 
pin butts are becoming of more general 
use than formerly and possess some ad¬ 
vantages. In the first place, the bearing 
surfaces are multiplied, and the pin being 
separate from the leaves allows of its being made of harder metal. 
Again, as either leaf can be fastened to the door or jamb, the same 
hinge may be used for a right-hand or a left-hand door, and the fact 
that the pin may be withdrawn al¬ 
lows of opening the door even when 
locked. This may sometimes be a 
disadvantage and should be borne 
in mind in using doors which open 
out of a room which must be made 
secure. 

Locks. The variety of door 
locks is so great that mention can be 
made only of some of the distinguish¬ 
ing features. According to their 
construction, locks are generally 
either “tumbler locks” or “cylinder 
locks”, and according to their position on the door are either 







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Fig. 84. Loose-Joint Butt. 



Fig. 83. Door Framing. 


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J2GDF 



RESIDENCE FOR MR. J. S. HANNAH, LAKE FOREST, ILL. 

Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 

Note the Fact that All Bedrooms, with the Exception of One, Face toward the Lake. Another Advantage of this Plan is that it Affords Fond rvncc 

Ventilation. For First-Story Plan, See Opposite Page; for Exterior, See Page 74. uooa Ll0SS 
























































































































































































































i 


























































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


83 


“rim locks” or “mortise locks”. Tumbler locks are the ordinary 
kind of lock operated by a long key (Fig. 86), and depend upon tum¬ 
blers or levers which are raised by the key to an exact position 
before the bolt can be thrown. Cylinder locks consist of two cylin¬ 
ders, a small cylinder rotating inside of 
a larger one and only turning when a 
key of the proper shape and size is 
inserted. (Fig. 87.) Cylinder locks 
are not so easy to pick as tumbler 
locks, and there is less danger of an 
accidental exchange of keys, so that 
they are recommended for outside 
doors or wherever special security is 
desired. “Rim” and “mortise” locks 
differ only in the form of the case, rim 
locks being made to screw on the face 
of the door (Fig. 88), and mortise 
locks are let into the edge of the door (Figs. 86 and 87), the inside 
construction of both being the same. For ordinary house use, a three 
lever lock with brass or bronze face is good enough, but a cylinder 
lock may be used to advantage for the outside doors. The latch 
and lock will generally be found in combination and may be used 

with a long plate covering both knob 
and keyhole, or with a separate treat¬ 
ment of the keyhole by means of an 
“escutcheon”, (Fig. 89.) 

Whatever treatment of escutcheon 
plate is adopted, the knobs and spindle 
will be the same and may be selected 
of a variety of materials and shapes. 
The cheapest knobs are of composition 
and are commonly called “mineral”, 
“jet”, or “porcelain” knobs. Wood finished in natural color is used 
to some extent, and glass as well. All of these are sold with bronze 
shanks and escutcheons. A better class of knob, and perhaps the 
most satisfactory of any, is the brass or bronze metal, either wrought 
or cast and finished in a variety of shapes and with a wide choice 
of finish. 



Fig. 86. Tumbler Lock. 



91 























84 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



Bolts. Of greater protection than locks on a door are bolts, 
which, being operated from one side only, are secure against picking. 
The simplest and least noticeable of these are the mortise bolts 
which set into a hole bored in the edge of the door and are operated 

by a knob or key on the face. 
Chain bolts are a protection in lo¬ 
calities infested by tramps or un¬ 
desirable intruders. These con¬ 
sist of a strong chain which is 
secured to - the frame, and hooks 
into a slotted plate on the door, 
allowing the door to open only to 
the length of the chain, which can¬ 
not be dislodged except by again 
closing the door. (Fig. 90.) 

Miscellaneous. The many 
small fittings such as coat hooks, drawer handles, cupboard latches 
and the like, should be selected for strength and utility rather than 
for effect, and are the most satisfactory in plain bronze metal or 
brass, and can be obtained of good manufacture and materials at 
moderate prices. 

Inspection. The inspection of hardware is an important mat¬ 
ter, whether it is furnished by the owner or the buiider, as any changes 
made after fixtures are once applied are 
sure to produce defects of some kind. 

What purports to be bronze may be some 
baser metal skillfully bronzed or lac¬ 
quered on the face. This may be detected 
by scraping the back with a knife or file. 

The faces of locks or bolts may be plated 
instead of being solid. Knobs may be 
poorly secured to the shank, and may 
lack proper washers to prevent rattling, and hinges may be fur¬ 
nished with no washers and will soon wear and creak. In the 
application of hardware also it is necessary to keep a sharp watch. 
Even in so simple a matter as putting on door hinges there is a 
right and a wrong way, for if the butts are not directly over each 
other, the door when opened will either swing back or forward. 



TUN 

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Fig. 88. Rim Lock. 


92 


























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


85 


Mortises must be accurately cut so that the locks will neither be 
loose nor be so tight that they cannot be removed if required. Roses 
or escutcheon plates must be put exactly opposite each other or else 
the spindle will bind in the lock. Knobs must be carefully adjusted 
by means of washers so that they will not 
slip back and forth. Striking plates for 
latches (Fig. 91) must be carefully cen¬ 
tered and adjusted. While all hardware 
is usually packed with screws finished to 
match, the screws are often too small and 
their efficiency destroyed by being driven 
in with a hammer by careless workmen. 

This should never be allowed, but every 
screw should be set with a screwdriver. 

Good sized screws are especially impor- F ig. 89. Plate and Escutcheon, 
tant in door hinges, and the hinges them¬ 
selves must be of ample size to allow the door to swing entirely back. 
The greatest vigilance is necessary to insure from defects of selec¬ 
tion or application, and nothing will reflect more credit upon the 
superintendent than a good job of hardware. 

Floors. When the inside finish has been put up, the rough 
under floors should be gone over and all holes and broken boards 
repaired and the floors cleaned off, ready to receive the finished floors. 
The laying of these, if they are of hardwood, is sometimes let out to a 
regular floor-layer, but in general this is 
done by the carpenter. For the carpeted 
rooms a good quality of spruce flooring 
not over four inches wide will be used laid 
with square-edged boards. If possible, the 
boards should be laid in one length, and if 
this cannot be done, the joints should be 
broken as often as possible. With boards of the same width they can 
be broken every course, but when the boards are of unequal width 
there will be a straight joint through three or four boards. The 
nails of a square-edged floor are driven through the face of the 
board and sunk with a nail-set, to be puttied or not, according to 
whether the floor is finished or left bare, and a line should be 
drawn where nails are to be driven, over the center of the joist below. 




93 














BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


© 


Floor Paper. Between the upper and under floors it is well to 
lay a deafening of paper. This may be an asbestos felt, which is 
valuable on account of its fire resisting qualities, or a common floor 
paper may be used, and should be put down in two thicknesses. 

Matching. Where finished hardwood floors are used, it will 
be necessary to have the floor boards matched so that the nails may 
be concealed. Blind nailing, this is called, and by this 
method the board will be nailed only on one edge, and 
the matching depended upon to hold down the other edge 
of the board. For this reason the floor should be laid of 
narrow strips each with a tongue and groove, the grooved 
edge being forced over the tongue of the preceding strip 
and the tongue in turn nailed diagonally. (Fig. 92.) 
The under floors, where a nice, handsome upper floor is 
desired, should be in narrow widths not over four inches 
wide, for each board in shrinking will compress as many 
strips of the upper floor as may be upon it, together, 
leaving a wide crack over the crack in under floor. This 
defect may be overcome by laying the under floor diagonally or at 
right angles to the upper floor. 

Stock, Of flooring stock in general, quartered oak makes the 
best floor for appearance and wearing quality, but birch and maple 
are used to a great extent, and rift hard pine will make a good floor 
for ordinary use. Quartered oak is sawn from the trees as nearly 
as is possible on radial lines 


Fig. 91. 
Striker. 


1 


2 ^^ 


Fig. 92. Blind-Nailing. 


(Fig. 93), and shows an 
even, straight grain with 
irregular streaks, upon a 
ground of fine parallel lines. 

In rift hard pine the parallel grain is more pronounced and of a 
coarse growth. All flooring must be kiln-dried and laid hot from 
the kiln, or as soon as possible after delivery. To obtain a perfectly 
even surface the floor must be “traversed”, that is, planed across 
the grain so as to bring the floor to a perfectly level surface. A 
thin floor which is only T 5 6 -inch thick is used to good advantage 
over an under floor which is in good condition. This floor is skill¬ 
fully handled by a professional floor-layer, and is often laid to a more 
or less fancy pattern. Being too thin to match, these floors are nailed 


94 
















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


87 


through and the nail holes are so cleverly puttied up as to be almost 
invisible. It is a good plan to keep artificial heat in the building 
while the floors and finish are being put up, which should be main¬ 
tained until occupancy. This is especially necessary in the case of 
parquetry floors. 

Miscellaneous. A number of different points connected with 
the finishing of the house will now arise, and the superintendent will 
do well to inspect the work constantly to see that every visible detail 
is completed as it should be. Thresholds should be carefully fitted, 
cornices, chair-rails, and picture-mouldings run level and true. 
Sashes must be tried to be sure that they are accurately balanced and 
hung. Every sash-fast, lock and knob must be examined and all 
drawers, slides and other movable fixtures 
tested and left in good working order. 

PAINTING. 

Exterior Painting. The outside fin¬ 
ish of the house should have received as 
soon as put up the first or priming coat 
of paint, this is usually done more or less 
by piecemeal as the different parts of the 
house are completed, and will require at- Fig . 93 . Quar ter sawing, 
tention mainly to see that the materials are 

pure and that the surfaces are well covered. This first coat should 
contain a large proportion of white lead, which will adhere to 
the new wood far better than any other substance and will retain 
the second coat well. Pure linseed oil should be used, but unless 
care is taken this is likely to be adulterated with fish oil which dries 
slowly and never hardens like pure oik The only way to detect the 
presence of fish oil is by its fishy smell and this is sometimes hard 
to observe. Linseed oil is also adulterated with oils of resin and pine, 
and these are very hard to detect, except by long experience. 

Puttying. After the application of the priming coat, all the 
nail holes and cracks must be stopped with putty, the nails having 
previously been “set” by the carpenter when the finish was put up. 

The final painting of the exterior will naturally begin with the 
roof 1 and be carried downward so that portions already done will 
not be spattered by -subsequent operations. If the roof shingles 



95 







88 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


are to be painted or stained they should have been dipped in the 
paint or stain for a distance of at least two-thirds from the butt, 
before being laid. This is a tedious process but is well worth the 
extra trouble and expense. Another method is to paint each course 
of shingles as it is laid, but this is fully as objectionable a process 
as dipping. In either case the coloring of the roof shingles will have 
become hard by the time the walls are painted so that there will be 
no staining of the work below. 

Colors. In the choice of a color for the-exterior a few general 
suggestions may properly be made here. In the first place, it is of 
prime importance that the house should harmonize in its exterior 
colors with the surroundings. If the house is to be surrounded by 
plenty of growth, such as trees or shrubs so that the tints of vegeta¬ 
tion will predominate, the tendency may well be toward shades of 
green, yellow, or brown, which will harmonize with the changing 
effects of the growth. On the other hand, if the situation is one 
where rocks and ledges will necessarily lend a grayish tone to the 
surroundings, the house may well be painted in shades of gray. 

Colonial Colors. For a colonial design, such as we have 
adopted, the old-fashioned idea of painting the trimmings white and 
the body color of yellow ochre or gray, may be properly considered. 
Of these the gray body will prove more lasting as the yellow ochre 
often becomes subject to mildew when exposed to continued damp¬ 
ness. In general, light colors last better than dark colors and do not 
“draw” the joints of the finish. 

Exterior Stains. For shingled houses, stains of various colors 
and ingredients are often used. These are not so durable as paint, 
but have the merit of preserving the texture of the shingles, which is 
completely lost by the application of paint. Creosote stains, pine tar 
stains and oil stains may be obtained. Of these the creosote stain 
acts as a preservative for the wood, especially if the shingles are 
dipped before laying. In the lasting qualities of these stains there 
is little choice, creosote and tar both disappear in time through the 
action of sun and rain, while the tendency of oil stain is to blacken 
or mildew. 

In some situations a preference may be had for an unpainted 
exterior, the desired effect being obtained by the action of the ele¬ 
ments. In this case shingles should be used for the covering, as 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


89 


clapboards or siding are liable to split if not protected with paint. In 
any case the exterior finish and mouldings should be painted or they 
will warp and twist out of place. 

Priming. Before priming the painted finish, all knots, sap and 
strong discolorations must be “killed” with a strong coat of shellac 
to prevent any staining, which will occur unless this is done. The 
painter must be required to examine the finish and report any defects, 
which must be remedied by the carpenter, and all finish should be 
gone over with sand-paper before each coat. As to color of the prim¬ 
ing coat, white or almost any very light color will do, and it is often 
well to include in the contract simply this and another finishing coat, 
as the work will be better done with less opportunity to cover up poor 
work and less liability of blistering than if three or four coats are 
applied at once, and a third coat may be applied after two or three 
seasons to better advantage. An exception should be made in regard 
to sashes, which should have three or four coats at once. While it 
is essential that the first coat should be of lead and oil, for the sub¬ 
sequent finish it is not so important. Some of the patent mixed or 
“chemical” paints are convenient and will last well, especially away 
from the sea-coasts. Paint should be applied by long strokes parallel 
to the grain of the wood, and no portion of work should be started 
in the morning which cannot be finished, or carried to some definite 
stopping place before night, as the joining of work done at different 
times will always show a bad place. The back of lattice should be 
painted and all conductors and metal finish and roofs. Canvas 
roofs are best treated by dampening and giving a good coat of oil 
with yellow ochre, then two or three coats of lead and oil paint. 

In regard to exterior painting, the use of turpentine is to be 
avoided, as turpentine does not resist the action of water and so 
will not preserve work which is exposed to the weather. As oil 
possesses a natural tendency to discolor white paint, it is customary 
to mix turpentine with the oil when an absolute white is desired, but 
in dark colors this is not necessary, and boiled oil only should be used 
unless a dryer is needed. 

Inside Painting. While the same principles apply to the inside 
painting as to the outside, more care should be exercised in the appli¬ 
cation. Puttying must be done with the greatest of care, and a 
greater skill in the application will be needed. If a painted finish is 


97 



90 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


desired greater care must be taken in protecting from knots and pitch 
by the use of shellac, even to the extent of shellacing the whole finish 
if it is necessary. For inside painting zinc is used to a large extent, 
instead of lead, and is often preferred as it has no tendency to turn 
yellow in rooms which are not well lighted, as lead will sometimes 
do. Tastes vary as to the kind of surface desirable for painted 
finish. If a dull finish is desired it may be obtained by mixing the 
last coat of paint with clear spirits of turpentine instead of oil. Oil 
gives a somewhat glossy finish and if a high gloss is desired varnish 
may be mixed with the last coat. The so-called enamel finish is 
very popular and is obtained by the application of five or six coats of 
paint, each coat rubbed down with pumice and oil, the last coat being 
of a prepared enamel. 

Inside Staining. Staining in various tints is a popular way of 
finishing many interiors. This is done sometimes to change the 
natural color of oak or other hard woods, and more often to give a 
desired tone to softer woods such as whitewood or cypress. 

Stains are in general of three kinds, water stains, oil stains 
and spirit stains. The richest color effects are produced by water 
stains, for the reason that their work is performed by absorption 
and there is thus less tendency to obscure the grain of the wood. 
Oil stains are superior to water stains in the matter of preserving the 
wood and, by reason of not freezing, their use in cold weather is an 
advantage, but the result is a loss in clearness of grain and color 
effects. For renewal of old work oil stains should be used, as the pre¬ 
vious finishing will prevent proper absorption of the water stain. 
Spirit stains tend to strike into the wood by evaporation, requiring 
about twice as much to cover the same area as water or oil stains, 
and they are not so extensively used. 

Varnish and Shellac. Where a natural finish is desired the 
treatment will vary from the simple application of a coat or two of 
oil, which makes the cheapest and poorest finish, to five or six coats 
of shellac, rubbed down, which gives the most costly and best of all 
finishes. The actual treatment will vary with the wood and finish 
desired. We find that our painting specification has been very 
carefully drawn, giving the hardwood finish after cleaning, first a 
coat of oil or paste filler, this is cleaned off and four coats of shellac 
applied, each coat when dry being rubbed down with fine sand-paper 


98 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


91 


except the last. This coat will be rubbed to an egg-shell gloss with 
pumice stone in oil. The hard pine finish of the service portions of 
the house will be given a good coat of oil to bring out the grain of the 
wood. This will be smoothed by sandpapering and then given a 
good coat of spar varnish rubbed down, and a final coat of the same, 
this last coat flowed on and left shining. 

Preparation. For a first-class finish certain conditions must 
be observed, first in importance being to have a smooth and clean 
surface upon which to work. This can best be assured by a careful 
sandpapering of all finish until perfectly smooth, when all traces of 
dust should be removed. If stain is to be used it may then be applied 
and, after drying, sand-paper lightly to bring up the high lights and 
smooth the grain which will be raised somewhat by the application 
of the stain. A second coat of very dilute stain lightly applied with 
a cloth will often improve the grain. This may be followed by a 
very light coat of shellac to protect the solid parts of the wood from 
absorbing too much of the filler, thus improving the contrasts and 
preventing a muddy appearance that is sometimes seen. 

Filling and Finishing. The wood is now ready to receive the 
filler which should be used on open grained woods such as oak, ash, 
chestnut, mahogany, etc. Either a paste filler or an oil filler may be 
used, preference generally being for the former. This is applied in 
a thick coat, the surplus being wiped off with a cloth, and the whole 
sand-papered lightly. 

After filling, another coat of shellac may be put on and sand¬ 
papered, and this may be followed by two or three coats of varnish 
or shellac according to the finish desired. 

Shellac and Varnish. The choice of shellac or varnish for 
finishing will depend upon the use, condition, or situation of the work 
to be finished. 

In conditions of dampness or where the finish will be subjected 
to the action of water to any extent, it will be better to use varnish, 
as the effect of water is to turn shellac white. Varnish, when thor¬ 
oughly dry, is not affected by ordinary applications of water. For 
this reason, if there is any suspicion that the finish is not thoroughly 
dry, it will be safer to use varnish in direct contact with the wood as 
the final seasoning of some of the more “sappy” woods, such as 


09 



92 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


cypress or hard pine, will sometimes produce enough moisture to 
whiten the shellac, even under subsequent coats of varnish. 

In kitchens, pantries, bathrooms and in general the whole serv¬ 
ice portion of a house, it will be better to use* varnish, as the appli¬ 
cation of water will be more general in these parts than in the main 
rooms. 

Rubbing Down. The rubbing down of shellac or varnish is a 
protection against whitening, and for this reason, besides the gain in 
appearance, every coat, especially in finishing in shellac, should be 
rubbed down. This rubbing down may be done with fine sand-paper, 
or hair-cloth or curled hair, and the last coat may be treated in various 
ways according to the finish desired. To obtain an egg-shell gloss 
for the final surface the last coat should be rubbed with pulverized 
pumice stone and raw linseed oil. For a dull finish water may be 
used instead of oil with the pumice, and for a highly polished surface, 
a rubbing with pumice and water may be followed by polishing with 
“rotten stone” and water. Work that is to be polished should never 
have less than three varnish coats, but an egg-shell gloss may be 
obtained with two coats. 

Floor Finish. To obtain permanent wearing qualities in the 
finishing of floors is a troublesome matter. The elastic varnish 
which we have used for the standing finish requires a different treat¬ 
ment when subjected to the wear and tear of floors. Referring to the 
specifications, we find that the floors are to be stained as approved, 
and the oak, which is an open grained wood, is to receive a coat of 
oil filler, this brings out the grain of the wood and it is then ready 
to receive three or four coats of shellac each sand-papered as before 
and the last coat rubbed with pumice stone in oil or water to a dull 
finish. 

For floors of maple, birch or any close grained wood the oil 
filler would be of no use and its place would be taken by extra coats 
of shellac. For hard pine floors of tfye kitchen, back halls and bath¬ 
room, which are subjected to a great deal of use and more or less 
water, satisfactory finish may be obtained by giving simply two 
coats of oil with turpentine dryer added to prevent the dust from 
sticking as it would to clear oil. A finish less expensive than the 
shellaced finish for hardwood floors is obtained by use of wax polish 
which is applied to the wood after filling or better, over one or two 


100 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


93 


coats of shellac. This is a paste which enters the pores of the wood, 
dries in a few hours, and can then be polished with cloths or by drag¬ 
ging weighted brushes, which are sold for the purpose, to and fro 
over the floor. By keeping a brush and the wax at hand, any worn 
spots on the floor can be easily renewed and the whole kept looking 
well indefinitely. 

A first-class job of finishing should never be hurried, but each 
coat should be thoroughly dry. Varnish should be applied at a tem¬ 
perature of about 70° F. and this temperature should be maintained 
until the varnish is thoroughly dry. Clean brushes should be used at 
all times, and a rising of dust in a room should be wet down and 
checked until the varnished work is completely dry. 

Miscellaneous. Beside the standing finish and floors, miscel¬ 
laneous parts must receive the painter’s attention. Pulley stiles 
of windows must be oiled, sashes drawn, exposed brass piping shel¬ 
laced, and thresholds oiled or varnished. All of these minor details 
will need the attention of the superintendent or they will be over¬ 
looked. Other than this, the supervision of the painting work will 
be mainly to see that the best of materials are used. To this end it 
will be necessary to insist that all paints shall be mixed at the build* 
ing, and that all materials are of the specified kind and are brought 
to the building in the original cases or kegs. 

Tinting. It will generally be found necessary that the ceilings 
and walls which are not covered with paper or hangings, shall be 
tinted or frescoed. This is a matter which needs to be done by care¬ 
ful workmen who understand the preparation and application of the 
colors. Much depends upon the first or sizing coat and this should 
always be applied before tinting or fresco of any kind is done. 

Glazing. It is usually the custom to send the sashes to the 
building all glazed, so that the superintendent needs only to see that 
the glass is of the specified quality and whole. Common window 
glass is called sheet or cylinder glass, and is rated as double or single 
thick, and as first, second or third quality. Formerly all glass was 
imported from France or Germany, but American glass has come to 
be used in general in the greater part of the United States. 

In the Eastern States window glass is still imported and it is 
customary in the East to specify German glass for the best work. 
For lights up to twenty-four inches in width, single-thick glass may 


101 



94 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


be used, this is about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness, while 
double-thick glass is about one-eighth inch. 

The best quality of common American glass is known as AA, the 
second as A, and the third as B. Sheet glass is made by blowing 
the molten glass in a cylinder about fifteen inches in diameter. This 
is trimmed and cut longitudinally and heated until it can be opened 
out flat. Sheet glass always retains a vestige of its curvature. 

Between first and second quality glass it will be difficult to dis¬ 
tinguish except by practice, but defects or unevenness may be seen 
at once, and plate glass is always readily distinguished, by reason of 
its polish and its absolute freedom from imperfections of any kind. 

Plate Glass. For lights more than five feet square plate glass 
must be used. This may be obtained in three grades, French plate 
and two grades of American plate. French plate, and the first or 
silvering quality of American plate, are used almost entirely for mir¬ 
rors, while the second quality of American plate is used for glazing. 

American glazing plate is made in one quality only, and is usually 
one-quarter inch thick for ordinary sizes, but is necessarily thicker 
for large lights, and may be obtained in sheets as large as twelve by 
seventeen feet. P^te glass is absolutely straight, being cast on a 
perfectly flat cast iron table and rolled to the required thickness. 
The rough plate thus formed is carefully examined for flaws which 
are cut out, leaving as large a sheet as possible which is polished. 
French plate may be distinguished from American plate by the color, 
when looked at endways. The French glass shows perfectly clear 
and white, while the American glass has a bluish color. 

Crystal Plate. A kind of plate glass called crystal plate is 
made, about three-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. This is used 
for railway cars and in places where thin sashes must be used or a 
saving in weight is desirable. 

Final Inspection. With the departure of the painter the house 
is usually complete, and ready for the architect’s final inspection and 
acceptance. This inspection should be careful and thorough from 
top to bottom, and no certificate of acceptance should be issued, until 
the architect is satisfied that everything has been done which is actu¬ 
ally called for or reasonably implied by the plans and specifications. 


102 













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BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PART II. 


CITY BUILDINGS. 

The requirements of city buildings, which are for the main 
part similar to the practices which we have already considered, are, 
nevertheless, in many essentials, distinct. In the first place, the 
circumstances of situation, soil and surroundings differ from sub¬ 
urban or rural conditions. Instead of being able to establish our 
building to meet our individual tastes, we shall find that the side¬ 
walk and yard levels are already established, and the level of the 
cellars or basements will be found to be restricted in some localities. 
The lines of our building will also be determined, in a great measure, 
by established lines and restrictions so that much more of prelimi¬ 
nary work will be needed to make the most of the existing condi¬ 
tions with which we find ourselves confronted. 

Party Walls. Of great importance in laying out our build¬ 
ing will be the existing agreements in regard to party walls. In 
most cases it will be found that there has been signed an agreement 
relating to the construction and use of party walls. The usual 
arrangement is that the party who first builds, shall build and pay 
for the wall, which is erected one-half on each side of the party line, 
and that the adjoining owner shall have the right to use and acquire 
the half of wall which stands upon his side of the line, by paying 
to the party who has already built, the cost of one-half of the wall 
as already erected. 

As buildings of different heights require walls of varying thick¬ 
ness, it is usual to agree that no wall shall be primarily erected which 
extends more than six inches beyond the party line, so that if one 
owner desires to erect a building which will require a greater thick¬ 
ness than one foot for the party wall, he must erect all except six 
inches of the thickness of the wall upon his own land. While a 
party wall agreement will probably be a matter of record, which 


105 



96 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


can be looked up in the proper place, much time may often be saved 
by looking for some information upon the spot. 

If the land on either side of our lot be already occupied by a 
building, the conditions of the wall finish will ue likely to afford data 
upon which we can work. If the finished 
brick or stonework covers apparently only 
one-half of the wall, leaving a surface of 
rough brick set back from the face or 
“ashlar line,” Fig. 94, it will indicate that 
the wall is a party wall, as it is the usual 
practice for each owner to stop his front 
at the party line. If, on the other hand, 
we find the finished work covering the 
wall completely, Fig. 95, we may assume 
that the wall in question is not a 
party wall, but a wall built wholly 
upon the land of the adjoining owner. 
This evidence will be confirmed if, upon 
measuring the distance between the two 
lines in question, we find it to agree with the figures upon the sur¬ 
veyor’s plan with which we must be provided before laying out 
our plans. The matter of party wall 
rights is, however, too important 
to be settled to a sufficient degree, 
by mere observation, to permit of 
building operations, and so we shall 
need to apply to our client for a 
copy of any agreements or restric- 
plan and con¬ 
struct the new buildings in accord¬ 
ance with these. 

Soil. If the nature of the soil 
upon which we are to build is not 
known, we must have borings made 
to show the composition of the 
soil at different levels. If two borings on opposite sides show about 
the same character, it will be sufficient evidence, but if these vary, 
then borings should be made all around. Rock, clay or gravel 


tions, and proceed to 


'ty'/// 

II 

5£T( 

V///// 


/////////////, 

:K. /BACKING.. 

'////////, v/,'//// 

A ATO NE: ; 

TAcma. 


Fig. 95. Finish of Wall not a Party 
Wall. 



/^BRICK.'BACKING 


.CTOMt 


FACING 


> 

H 

<1 

Fig. 94. Finish at Party Wall. 


106 

























HOUSE AT CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Watterson & Schneider, Architects, Cleveland, Ohio, 
Cost of House. $20,000. For Exterior, See Page 104. 






























































































































































































































































5H.COHP FLOOR FLAN. 


HOUSE AT CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Watterson & Schneider, Architects. 
First-Floor Flan Shown on Opposite Pago. 





























































































































































































































































I 

























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


97 


bottom will require only that our foundations shall be made wide 
enough to distribute the weight of the building, and its contents, 
over an area sufficient to sustain it. The bearing power of rock 
will vary from ten to thirty tons per square foot, dry clay from four 
to six tons, gravel from eight to ten tons. If, however, the soil con¬ 
sists of mud or filled land, such as will be found on the borders of 
lake or ocean, it will be necessary to drive piles, upon which the 
footings are supported. 

Pile Foundations. Piles are made of wood, cast iron, con¬ 
crete, or steel, but for ordinary building they are usually made from 
the trunks of trees, and should be straight and sound, and at least eight 
inches in diameter for heavy buildings. Spruce, hemlock, Georgia 
pine, and oak are the principal kinds of wood in use for piles. The 
usual method of driving piles is by repeated blows given by a block 
of iron called the hammer, which works up and down between the 
uprights of a machine called a pile-driver. This hammer weighs 
from 1,200 to 2,500 pounds, and the fall varies from five to fifteen feet. 
Piles should be driven plumb, and any pile which has been driven for 
twenty feet or more, and refuses to sink more than half an inch under 
five blows of a 1,200 pound-hammer falling fifteen feet, may be con¬ 
sidered as at its depth. Several formula? have been proposed for 
figuring the safe load upon piles, of which one of the latest, known 
as the Engineering News formula, is: 


Safe load in pounds = 


2WH 
S + 1 


in which W = weight of hammer in pounds, H = its fall in feet, and 
S = the average set under the last blows in inches. 

Piles should be spaced not less than two feet, nor more than 
three feet, on centers, and they must be cut off below low-water mark. 
The level at which piles are to be cut off will be given by the building 
laws of most large cities, and is established at a level which will 
insure of the pile being at all times under water. Under these con¬ 
ditions the piling will be subject to no decay, but alternate conditions 
of moisture and dryness will soon result in the rotting of the piles. 

The superintendence of piling will consist first in an examination 
of the piles as they are delivered, to see that they are of the requisite 
length and diameter, sound and straight. The lines of the building 
must be carefully established, and small stakes driven to fix the 


107 




98 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


position of every pile. This should be verified by the superintendent 
according to the piling plan furnished. When the actual driving 
of the piles begins there should be kept a complete record giving the 
length of pile, the number of blows, and the distance which the pile 
has sunk at each of the last (ten) blows. From this data the bearing 
capacity of the pile may be computed by the foregoing rule. Another 
formula is known as Saunder’s rule and is as follows: 

FH 

= w 
8 S ’ 

in which F = fall of hammer in inches, S = sinking of pile at last 
blow, in inches, H = weight of hammer in pounds, \V = safe load 
for pile in pounds. 

Besides this record, the pile should be carefully watched while 
being driven, to see that it does not get out of line, that the head 
does not “broom” or split excessively. If there is danger of this, 
the head of the pile should be bound with a wrought-iron strap or 
a cast-iron cap. When the piles have been driven, trenches wide 
enough to accommodate the stone levelers must be excavated and 
kept free from water to a depth sufficient to allow of sawing off the 
piles at the required level. This is usually done by means of a cross¬ 
cut saw operated by two men, and the tops must be cut off at a level 
with each other. Piles exposed to tide-water are usually driven 
with the bark on. 

Footing Stones and Concrete. Whether the bearing be 
piles or the natural earth, the bottom of the foundation will usually 
consist of large stones or of concrete. If three rows of piles are 

used they may be covered as 


r ' ,{ r '' shown in Fig. 96. Two rows of 

piles are generally capped by a 
series of levelers laid across the 
trench as in Fig. 97. A footing 
on earth will be laid in a like 
manner, and of a width made 
necessary by the load to be borne 
and the nature of the soil. The purposes of these wide footings are 
to spread the weight over a large area and also to add stability to 
the wall, and they may be of stone, brick, or concrete. For nearly 
all buildings on solid ground, concrete footings are probably the 


Fig. 96. Capping of three Rows of Piles. 


108 















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


99 



✓ "v 

1 # 


/ \ 

V./ 

V ✓ 

% 1 


# \ 

/•\ 


'"x 




K.J 


Fig. 9?. Capping of two Rows of Piles. 


best, and in many cases concrete capping for piles may be used 
to advantage. 

Trenches for the footing may be dug below the regular excava¬ 
tion and of the exact width required, and into this the concrete may 
be tamped (Fig. 98). A good 
proportion is one part of cement, 
two parts of sand, and four parts 
of stone, for natural cement. The 
thickness of the footing should be 
one-quarter of its width (provided 
this does not figure less than twelve inches) put in by layers about six 
inches each. If this concrete is much wider than the wall over it, a 

stone leveler may be placed on the 
top, as shown in Fig. 98 A. 

If preferred, stone footings of a 
similar character may be used, as in 
Fig. 99, and for light buildings where 
stone is hard to obtain, brick footings 
may be used. If this is done, the 
offsets should never be more than one- 
quarter of a brick, and the outside 
work should be all headers, with a 
double course at the bottom. (Fig. 
100.) This course should be laid in a bed of mortar spread on the 
bottom of the trench, of hard 
burnt bricks, thoroughly wet if the 
weather is dry. Too much care 
can never be taken to insure a good 
foundation. If important footings 
are made of concrete, an inspector 
should be on the work during 
working hours, to see that the 
concrete is mixed in proper por¬ 
tions, and put in to the full thick¬ 
ness shown, and tamped and lev¬ 
eled every six inches. The trenches must be kept free from water 
until the cement has set, or it will become utterly worthless, by rea¬ 
son of the water separating the cement from the sand. If the 




109 


































100 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


footing is of stone, the presence of water, if only a few inches 
deep, will do no harm, but the footing then must be bedded in firm 
sand or gravel instead of cement. 

Foundation Walls. The foundation walls of a city building 
above the footing course, are usually built of stone. Concrete is 
used to some extent, and brick will be used 
for the party wall where there is to be a 
cellar both sides. For heavy walls of build¬ 
ings, three or more stories in height, it 
will be necessary to use block stone. These 
are stones roughly fashioned to dimension 
and generally laying from eighteen inches to 
two feet in height and the full width of the 
wall. (Fig. 101.) Being brought nearly even and square, not 
much mortar will be used, and this should be of clear cement and 
sand below the grade line. 

Rubble Walls. For a foundation of a lighter character, rubble 
stone may be used. This consists of stone split from a ledge with 
no preparation other than breaking up with a stone hammer, and 
squaring one edge and face. As 
these stones are irregular in 
shape and thickness, considera¬ 
ble mortar will have to be used 
and the character of the mortar 
and the filling of voids will need 
especial attention. An important 
element in the strength of a rub¬ 
ble wall, is the bonding or the 
lapping of stones over each other. 

The stones should be laid in 
irregular courses leveled off to a 
horizontal joint about every two feet, and a bond stone should be 
put in at intervals of four or five feet. Most city laws require a 
certain proportion of bond stones, and, if nothing is said, a through 
bond stone should be inserted into every five or six square feet. 
Care must be taken that the stones are bonded also in the direction 
of the length of the wall, so that no vertical joints may appear 
running through three or four courses. Outside of the bonding, 


J 1 

T 



r 



1 11 

| 

1 


U 

□ 



Pig. 101. Block StoneWall. 



Fig. 100. Brick Footing. 


110 
































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


101 


the manner of laying the stones must have our attention. All the 
stones must be laid as nearly as possible on their natural bed, 
that is, with their splitting surface horizontal. Angles and corners 
must be carefully laid with large stones bonding across each way, 
as in Fig. 102. 

With a heavy foundation wall of block stones, where each stone 
is of the full thickness of the wall, the main care will be to obtain a 
good bond, with level and plumb joints. Openings for pipes should 



Fig. 102. Bonding of Corner. 


be left when the wall is being built, as it may be difficult to break 
an opening after the walls are carried up. 

Derrick Stones. All of the stones which are suitable for the 
heavy walls which we have described should be large, and will 
require the use of derricks in handling. If the building is to be one 
of great size or height, a system of three or four large derricks will 
probably have been started, swinging from some central scaffold, 
and guyed to this and to each other. For a building of but three or 
four stories however, the builder would probably use a series of 
smaller derricks supported each by its own guy ropes. The super¬ 
intendent shoidd make sure that the ropes are strong and not frayed 
out, that the mast and boom are neither cracked nor sprung, and 
that the running gear is strong ^nd shipshape. The securing of the 
guv ropes is a very important matter, and should be noted by the 
superintendent. Although it belongs to the contractor to do this, a 


Hi 






102 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


careful inspection by the architect will doubly insure the safety of all 
concerned. In suburban or out-of-town work the guys will usually 
be secured to a convenient tree, and this should be a young or evidently 
sound tree, or if posts have to be put down, as will be necessary in the 
city, they should be set deep in the ground with the earth well tamped 
in again. The guys must be at all times drawn taut, as a loose guy 
vill be given a sudden and dangerous strain if a heavy stone is swung 
iround so as to bring its weight upon it. 

The derrick will allow of heavy stones being carefully set, and 
his will be especially noted in the handling of the capstones for 
the piles. These will have been selected for 
an even bed and can be shifted until they 
rest immovable on the piles. In bedding, the 
heavy stones may be held suspended over 
the place where they are to lie while an 
even bed is being prepared, and, if neces¬ 
sary, the stone may be lowered and then 
raised again before the final setting, so that 
the impression will show where the bed 
will need fitting. 

Thickness of Walls. The thickness 
of foundation walls in all large cities is 
controlled by law, and in general will re¬ 
quire that walls to a depth of ten or twelve 
feet below the ground shall be four inches 
thicker than the wall above, for brick, and 
eight inches for stone, with an increase of 
four inches for every ten feet below this. In clay, which is more 
seriously affected by frost than gravel, it is a good plan to build 
foundations with a batter on the outside of six to twelve inches, as in 
Fig. 103, so that any movement of the earth will readily free itself from 
the wall, which should be made smooth on the outside with cement. 

Areas and Vaults. Areas are often required, to give light 
or access to basements, and these will need a retaining wall to keep 
back the earth. Stone should be used for areas of any size, and, in 
excavating, the bank should be disturbed as little as possible and 
refilled carefully. If the area is not more than six or seven feet deep, 
a good wall of a uniform thickness of twenty inches will be sufficient 



112 










BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


103 


but, if deeper, the wall should be made wider at the bottom and bat¬ 
tered. If the wall is more than ten feet long, cross walls or arches 
should be built to connect with the main building. The bottom of the 
area should be carried at least six inches below the sill of window or 
door, and covered with stone flagging or brick laid in cement, with 
a small brick cesspool and cover, connected with the main drain. 

The space under the sidewalks and entrance steps or porches 
is often utilized for coal or general storage purposes. This requires 
a wall at the street line which shall be heavy enough to sustain the 
pressure of the street and the weight of the sidewalk. If it is possible 
to divide this space so that the partition walls can be run back to 
the main building about every ten feet, the construction can be sim¬ 
plified, but if an open space is required, a very heavy wall must be 
built at the street line, and steel 
beams laid from this wall to the 
building which will buttress the 
top of the street wall and support 
the weight of the sidewalk as well. 

Brick arches may be turned be¬ 
tween these beams and leveled 
up for the sidewalk, or a concrete 
or flagstone sidewalk may be constructed over them. (Fig. 104.) 
If brick arches are turned, to be covered with an ordinary brick 
paving, the top of the arch should be coated with hot asphalt. Any of 
the modern forms of fireproof floor construction may be used for the 
sidewalk covering, finished with concrete or “granolithic” surface. 

Dampness. As a protection against dampness, the outside of 
all cellar and vault walls in wet situations, should be coated with 
hot asphalt or Portland cement. Asphalt, applied while boiling 
hot in two or more coats from top to bottom, is considered the most 
lasting, if the ground is very damp, as Portland cement is affected 
by frost and is easily cracked by settlement of the walls, while asphalt, 
having considerable elasticity, remains sound and tight. Coal tar is 
sometimes used, but will gradually become brittle and crumble away. 

BRICKWORK AND CUT STONE. 

In the superstructure of a city building of ordinary height, 
say up to five or six stories, and excepting the so-called skeleton 



Fig. 104. Sidewalk Beams. 


113 







104 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


construction, we shall usually find that brickwork forms the greater 
part of the wall. The face is often finished with stone, either rough 
or cut, but the backing, and often the face as well, will usually be 
constructed of some form of brickwork, so that bricks of some kind 
or another are probably more extensively used in the construction 
of city buildings than any other material. 

The advantages of bricks over stone are that they are practi¬ 
cally indestructible, either from the action of fire or the elements; 
they are less expensive and more easily handled. Good building 
bricks of their respective kinds should be sound and free from 
flaws and stones or lumps of lime, uniform in size, and square, hard 
and not too absorbent. A good hard brick will ring distinctly when 
struck by another brick or by a trowel, and it should not absorb 
more than ten per cent of its weight of water. In selecting bricks 
from a quantity delivered, the hard and usually darker bricks should 
be culled for use on the outside of the walls, while the lighter bricks 
should be used for backing and the inside courses. 

Thickness of Walls. No practical rule can be laid down 
for the thickness of brick walls, as their crushing strength, which 
is usually the only direct strain applied, is generally, except in the case 
of small piers, a minor consideration. In all large cities the least 
thickness of walls will be fixed by law, walls of mercantile buildings 
being heavier than those used for living purposes; and in no case 
is it advisable that party walls should be less than twelve inches 
thick. Exterior walls in general, for a building of five stories, should 
not be less than twenty inches in the lower story and twelve 
inches in the upper story. These dimensions applying to stories 
of ordinary height, and spans of not more than twenty-five feet, 
nor more than twenty-five feet of length without a pier. Walls 
which contain thirty-three per cent of openings should also be 
made thicker. 

Brick Laying. To perform the operation of erecting a brick 
building it is necessary to lay the carefully chosen bricks upon each 
other, with a bed of some kind of mortar between. Ordinary brick¬ 
work is laid in common white lime mortar, but for greater strength 
and durability there is often added a proportion of cement, and for 
brickwork below ground, cement mortar only should be used. The 
thickness of the joints will vary from three-sixteenths of an inch to 


114 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 105 


three-eighths of an inch, according to whether the joint is to be con¬ 
cealed or made a feature of the work. 

The laying of the bricks should be carefully watched, as there 
is a tendency on the part of many masons to slight this work. “Bricks 
should not be merely laid, but every one should be rubbed and 
pressed down in such a manner as to force the mortar into the pores 
of the bricks, and produce the maximum adhesion; with quick¬ 
setting cement this is still more important than with lime mortar. 
For the best work it is specified that the brick shall be laid with a 
f shove-joint/ that is, that the brick shall first be laid so as to project 
over the one below, and be pressed into the mortar, and then be 
shoved into its final position. Bricks should be laid in full beds of 
mortar, filling end and side joints in one operation. This operation 
is simple and easy with skillful masons, if they will do it, but it requires 
persistence to get it accomplished. Masons have a habit of laying 
bricks in a bed of mortar, leaving the vertical joints to take care of 
themselves, throwing a little mortar over the top beds and giving a 
sweep with the trowel which more or less disguises the open joint 
below. They also have a way after mortar has been sufficiently 
applied to the top bed of brick, to draw the point of their trowel 
through it, making an open channel with only a sharp ridge of mor¬ 
tar on each side (and generally throwing some of it overboard), so 
that if the succeeding brick is taken up, it will show a clear hollow, 
free from mortar, through the bed. This enables them to bed the 
next brick with more facility, and avoid pressure upon it to obtain 
the requisite thickness of joint. Neglect in wetting the brick before 
use is the cause of many of the failures of brickwork. Bricks have 
a great avidity for water, and if the mortar is stiff and the bricks 
dry, they will absorb the water so rapidly that the mortar will not 
set properly, and will crumble in the fingers when dry. 

“ Mortar is sometimes made so thin that the brick will not 
absorb all the water. This practice is objectionable; it interferes 
with the setting of the mortar, and particularly with the adhesion 
of the mortar to the brick. Watery mortar also contracts exces¬ 
sively in drying (if it ever does dry), which causes undue settlement 
and, possibly, cracks or distortion. The bricks should not be wetted 
to the point of saturation, or they will be incapable of absorbing 
any of the moisture from the mortar, and the adhesion between the 


115 



106 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


brick and mortar will be weak. The common method of wetting 
brick by throwing water from buckets or spraying with a hose over 
a large pile is deceptive, the water reaches a few bricks on one or 
more sides and escapes many. Immersion of the brick for from three 
to eight minutes, depending upon its quality, is the only sure method 
to avert the evil consequences of using dry or partially wetted brick. 
Strict attention must be paid to have the starting course level, for 
the bricks being of equal thickness throughout, the slightest irregu¬ 
larity or incorrectness in it will be carried into the superposed courses, 
and can only be rectified by using a greater or less quantity of mor¬ 
tar in one part or another, a course which is injurious to the work. 
A common but improper method of building thick brick walls is to 
lay up the outer stretcher courses between the header courses, and 
then to throw mortar into the trough thus formed, making it semi¬ 
fluid by the addition of a large dose of water, then throwing in the 
brickbats (sand and rubbish are often substituted for bricks), 
allowing them to find their own bearing; when the trough is filled, 
it is plastered over with stiff mortar, and the header course laid 
and the operation repeated. This practice may have some advan¬ 
tage in celerity in executing work, but none in strength or security.” 

A modification of this practice, where the bricks are laid dry 
and grouted with moderately thin mortar in every course, may be 
successfully used in weather when there is no danger of freezing, 
and will make solid work. This is especially so for footings and 
foundations of brick where it is necessary that every joint shall be 
filled, as the thin grouting is more to be depended upon to fill every 
joint than the average mason. 

Joints. For inside walls which are to be plastered or other¬ 
wise concealed, the joints may be simply cut off flush with the trowel, 
but where the walls are exposed, the joints should be “ struck.” 
(Fig. 105.) This consists in pressing or striking back with the 
trowel, the upper portion of the joint while the mortar is soft, so as 
to form a sloping surface from the bottom to the top. “Keyed 
joints” are formed by running an iron jointer with round or V-shaped 
edge along the center of the flush joint, giving it a depression and 
hardening the mortar by the pressure. (Fig. 106.) Ruled joints 
are made by holding a straight-edge under the joint and running 
the jointer along, making a perfectly straight joint. 


116 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


107 




Bonding. The strength of a brick wall depends not only upon 
the bricks, the mortar, and the workmanship, but the assembling 
of the different members, the bond or arrangement adopted for 
tying together the separate parts, and also 
for distributing the effects of concentrated 
loading. The common bonding consists of 
laying every fifth or sixth course of bricks 
at right angles to the direction of the wall, 
as in Fig. 107. These courses are called 
header courses and serve to tie the wall 
together. Where the wall is faced with 
p- * pressed brick and the regular occurrence 

of header courses would not look well, the 


Fig. 105. 
Struck Joint 


Fig. 106. 
V-Joint. 


face work is tied to the backing by clipping 
off the back corners c f the face bricks, and inserting a course of diag¬ 
onal headers. (Fig, 108.) Galvanized steel ties of patented manu¬ 
facture are extensively used in the East and are effective for this 
purpose. English bond is a bonding much used in England and 
consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers, as in Fig. 109. 



Flemish bond, Fig. 110, consists of alternate headers and stretchers 
in each course. This bond is sometimes used effectively in facings 
of common brick, by using blackened headers, and it is sometimes 
used for every fifth course of face work instead of the diagonal headers. 
The bonding of angles is an important matter, and, in addition to 
the regular bond, most of the city laws require that the corners shall 
be tied with iron straps or bolts. In joining new work to old, how- 


117 






























































108 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


ever, direct bonding should be avoided for fear of unequal settlement, 
and some such method as shown in Fig. Ill should be adopted. 

Hollow Walls. To overcome the tendency of a solid brick 
wall to transmit heat, cold, or dampness, hollow walls are often 



used. A given number of bricks, if built as a hollow wall, will make 
a more stable wall than a solid wall built from the same number; 
besides the gain of the air space. Nearly all building laws require 




the same amount of brickwork, independently of the air space, in 
hollow walls, as is required in solid walls, so that there is a loss of 
space which must be considered in city building. 


118 
















































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


109 


An important consideration is the bonding of the two portions 
of a hollow wall so that each shall help sustain the other. The 
usual method has been to do this by means of withes or headers of 
brick extending across the air 
space, as in Fig. 112, but these 
permit the moisture to pass from 
the outer to the inner shell, and 
also allow the mortar dropped 
from the higher portions of the 
wall to collect and partially fill 
the space; a more effective 
method of bonding is by means 
of a metal tie, either of steel wire or of iron, and these should 

be made with a dip in the center 
to allow any moisture which may 
come from the outer wall to drop off 
and not communicate with the inner 
wall. (Fig. 113.) These ties should 
be either galvanized or dipped in hot 
asphalt. It is a good plan to provide 
for a circulation of air through the 
space between the walls, by leaving 
openings in the basement and in 
Fig. ns. Hoiiow wall. the attic where possible. Hollow 

bricks are sometimes used for the inside course of exterior walls, 
but, while they are par¬ 
tially effective in excluding 
moisture, they do not fill 
the place of a hollow wall 
Common Bricks. We 
have made free mention of 
“common bricks,” “face 
bricks,” etc. Let us pause 
to consider just what is 
meant by the terms. Com¬ 
mon bricks include all Fig. 113. Metal Wall Ties, 

rough unpressed bricks which have had no special care taken in 
their manufacture. These, according to their position in the kiln, 





119 

































110 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


become burned to varying degrees of hardness. “Arch brick” are 
those which, from being near fire, become burned to a great degree of 
hardness and are often warped, vitreous, brittle, and weak. “Red 
bricks ” are those which are burned with an even and moderate temper¬ 
ature and compose the bulk of the kiln. Salmon, or soft bricks are 
those which are found at the top of the kiln and are usually under¬ 
burnt. They are good only for inside courses and for lining chimneys. 
Face bricks, in which general term are included pressed bricks, 
moulded bricks, etc., are made or re-pressed in a dry press machine. 
Face bricks are more expensive to use than common bricks and are 
generally used for facing exterior walls, for fireplaces, and for moulded 
work. “Enameled bricks” are bricks whose face is covered with a 
coat of enamel of selected color. The true enameled brick is a very 
expensive article, so that most of the bricks called by this name are 
glazed bricks, the difference being that the true enamel is fused into 
the clay and is opaque in itself, while the glaze is formed by coating 
the surface with a colored film and covering this with the transparent 
glazing. This film is apparent on chipping off the glazing, while 
the true enamel shows no line between the body of the brick and 
the surface. 

Both glazed and enameled bricks are impervious to moisture 
and are excellent for the facing of halls, courts, or wherever a light, 
clean and waterproof surface is desired. In addition to these, special 
bricks are made for special purposes, as fire bricks for furnace linings, 
etc., which are open-grained or porous to admit of a rapid loss of 
heat, and paving bricks which are burned to vitrification to with¬ 
stand the wear of travel and the action of frost. 

Sizes. The sizes of bricks vary with the maker and with local 
customs. Common bricks in New England average about 2} X 3} X 
7f inches; in the Western States about X 4J X 8J inches. Face 
bricks are more uniform in size and average about 2f X 4J X 8f 
inches. Pressed bricks are also made in a thinner pattern 1J X 4 X 12 
inches. This style is known as the Roman brick. 

Freezing of Brickwork. To obtain a satisfactory result, 
bricks should never be laid in freezing weather. If the temperature 
is much below 40° F. during the day, so that it is likely to freeze 
during the night, salt may be mixed with the mortar and the top of 
the wall well covered with boards and straw, and if the upper courses 


120 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


111 


are found to have been frozen over night they must be taken down 
and re-laid, as the alternate freezing and thawing will materially 
damage the strength of lime mortar and will entirely ruin mortar 
made of natural cement of the Rosendale type. “Mortar made of 
one part of Portland cement and three parts of sand is entirely unin¬ 
jured by freezing and thawing.” If it is absolutely necessary that 
brickwork should be laid in freezing weather with natural cement 
mortar, it may be done by mixing the mortar “ with water to which 
salt has been added in the proportion of one pound of salt to eighteen 
gallons of water, when the temperature is at 32° F. and, for each 
degree of temperature below 32°, add three additional ounces of 
salt. Mortar mixed with such a solution does not freeze in ordinary 
winter weather, and hence is not injured by frost.” In addition 
to this, the bricks shoidd be warmed to remove any ice or frost. 

These methods may be used in emergencies, but the laying of 
bricks in freezing weather is not to be recommended, if it can be 
avoided. 

Arches. In the erection of brick walls, especial care should 
be given to the construction of arches which will be necessary +o 



span the openings. Arches, in general, should be laid in cement 
mortar. The two principal forms of arch in brickwork are the 
rowlock arch, where the bricks are laid in concentric rings of headers, 
Fig. 114, and the gauged arch, where the bricks are cut and bonded 
on radial lines, as in Fig. 115. For arches of large spans the bricks 
are often laid in rings of stretchers, Fig. 11G, and, if the span is very 
large, these may be strengthened by bonding in headers as in Fig. 
117. An important point in the use of arches is to see that each 
abutment contains sufficient masonry to support the thrust of the 
arch; tie rods should be freely used in case of any doubt, and arches 
of large span should be sprung from stone skewbacks carefully cut 
to radial lines, as in Fig. 118. 


121 




112 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


flortar. All mason-work below ground should be laid in 
cement mortar, and all arches or heavily loaded piers as well. In 
many city laws, the use of cement mortar is required to a certain 
proportion of the height of wall. Cement mortar of some kind 
should be used for setting cornice stones and wherever the work 
is especially exposed. For all work under water, for large arches 



and for tops of chimneys, Portland cement should be used, and 
Portland cement may be mixed with Rosendale to make a strong, 
quick-setting mortar. Portland cement and lime may be mixed 
to give a strong light-colored mortar which is much used in England 
for face-brick work. 

Sand. The proportion of sand used in mortar should vary 
with the kind of cement and the use for which the work is intended. 
With Rosendale cement, the proportion of sand should not exceed 

three to one, and for piers two to one. 
Portland cement may contain sand in 
proportion of four to one, and lime mor¬ 
tar three to one. The object of using 
sand in mortar is to prevent too much 
shrinkage, and as a cheaper material 
than lime or cement, its functions being 
mechanical rather than chemical. It 
strengthens lime mortar, by supplying 
a base to which the particles of lime 
adhere more firmly than to each other, 
but its presence in cement mortar is a weakness. In all cases a 
thorough mixing is essential, the object being to so thoroughly 
mix the particles that no two grains of sand shall lie against 
each other without a film of cement between. The cement and 
sand should be mixed dry, the process being to spread them in 
layers and then turn and work the mass until it is thoroughly mixed, 



Fig. 118. Stone Skewback. 


122 



















































































• 


























































































' 






































? id 









HOUSE AT CANTON, ILL. 

R. C. Spencer, Jr., Architect, Chicago, Ill. 

Paving Brick Walls; Stud Frame Above, Plaster on Metal Lath, Paneled by Undressed and 

Stained Boards; Red Shingle Tile Roof. 
















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


113 


when water is added in sufficient quantity to obtain mortar of the 
desired stiffness. 

If too much sand is added the mortar will stick to the trowel 
and will not work easily. The superintendent should become, as 
soon as possible, familiar with the appearance of good mortar so that 
he can tell readily whether too much or too little sand has been added. 
If the mortar slides easily from the trowel it is usually of the right 
proportion. In ordinary practice, the lime and sand are mixed 
as soon as the lime is slaked and allowed to stand until needed, but 
it is better not to mix the sand until ready for use. Coarse sand 
makes a stronger mortar than fine sand, and a fine, loamy sand, 
although it works easier than sharp coarse sand, does not make a 
strong mortar. 


LIME AND CEMENT. 

Lime is now manufactured in nearly all parts of the country, 
but differs in character in different localities. In using a lime which 
is not already familiar, some inquiry should be made as to its prop¬ 
erties, especially if used for plastering. Good lime in general 
should be free from cinders or clinkers, and with less than 10 per cent 
of impurities, and should be found in large lumps which will slake 
readily in water, making a soft paste, free from residue or “core.” 
It should further completely dissolve in soft water. Slaked lime, 
or “lime-putty,” as it is commonly called, will keep indefinitely 
if protected from the air so that it does not dry up. This is usually 
done by covering it with sand in the bed in which it is slaked. Lime, 
before slaking, will absorb moisture from the air and become “air- 
slaked;” this destroys its strength and care should be taken that all 
lime is carefully protected from dampness until used. 

Setting and Durability. Lime mortar does not possess the 
“setting” quality of cement, but gradually hardens by exposure to the 
air. Lime mortar does not harden under water or in very damp situa¬ 
tions, but in dry places where there is ample exposure to the atmos¬ 
phere, it will set hard enough for all ordinary uses of brickwork, 
except arches and piers, and where excessive loads may be applied. 

Hydraulic Lime and Cement. Some limes, after burning, 
contain enough clay or silica to acquire the property of setting under 
water and are called hydraulic limes, but are used to very little extent, 


123 



114 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


as their qualities are more easily and profitably obtained by the 
use of cement, which is now more readily obtained, although hy¬ 
draulic lime was formerly imported from England and France. 
Cement may be put in two classes—natural cement and artificial 
cement. Natural cement is obtained by burning limestones which 
contain a large proportion of clay. This forms a powder which, 
when mixed with water, sets quickly either in air or water. Natural 
cements are made in many localities throughout the country, Rosen- 
dale cement being probably the best known brand, and this is usually 
of good quality and easily obtained. Of artificial cements the best 
known is Portland cement; this is of English origin and derives its 
name from the resemblance of a trowelled surface, to Portland 
stone, one of the best known building stones of England. 

Portland cement is made by combining proper proportions of 
carbonate of lime, clay, silica and iron. This mixture is dried 
and then burned into a heavy vitreous “clinker,” which is after¬ 
ward ground to a powder and run through fine sieves to make the 
finished product. Portland cement is now manufactured in many 
parts of the United States, and of as good a quality as the imported 
cements. Portland cement does not set as quickly as common 
cement, but possesses greater strength. There is now upon the 
market a grade of Portland cement known as “sand-cement” in 
which a certain proportion of sand is mixed with the powder and 
the whole ground to the fineness of the cement; this requires less 
sand in the final composition of the mortar and is productive of 
satisfactory results. Another prepared cement of a nature similar 
to Portland cement is known as Lafarge cement, and is useful in 
setting limestone or marble, as it does not stain like ordinary cement. 

Color. Some idea of the quality of cement may be obtained 
by a familiarity with its appearance upon opening the cask. With 
common cement the darker brown colors, in general, indicate the 
stronger qualities. Too dark a color, however, may indicate, in an 
unfamiliar brand, the presence of coloring matter, usually lamp¬ 
black. This may be detected by putting some of the cement into a 
glass of water, when the lampblack will separate as a black scum. 
With Portland cement, a clear grey or bluish-grey color is to be pre¬ 
ferred, as a brown color is given by an excess of clay, while too much 
of a bluish cast indicates the presence of too much lime. Further 


124 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


115 


tests of cement may be made as described in Part I. for ordinary 
work, but for important engineering works where Portland cement 
is used, it should be subjected to careful tests for activity, soundness, 
and strength, both unmixed and mixed with sand. 

In general, to obtain the best results, the superintendent should 
choose a fine, well-burned cement of average specific gravity, and, 
for important work, test it frequently. This, mixed with a sand 
that has passed a careful scrutiny for cleanliness and regularity, 
should give a smooth and strong mortar. 

Protection. Whether lime or cement mortar is used in the 
building of a wall, it should be kept at all times protected from the 
weather until the mortar has become thoroughly set. 

Brick Veneer. In some localities, dwellings and light mer¬ 
cantile or public buildings are built with a frame of studs and board¬ 
ing, veneered on the outside 
with four inches of brick. In 
this construction, the strength 
of the building lies in the 
frame, and the superintendent 
should see that this is built 
and braced in the best man¬ 
ner, plumb and straight and 
boarded diagonally, all of well- 
seasoned stock. Over the 
boarding, tarred felting should 
be placed, and an inch away 
from this, the four-inch brick 
wall, tied at short intervals to 
the wooden wall, as shown in Fig. 119. A metal tie such as at 
A may be used or the patented tie B, which is better. 

As moisture will collect in the air space behind the veneer, the 
ties will be better if given a drip, as for hollow walls, and a small 
drain may be laid at the top of the foundation wall connected with 
the cellar by pipes for drip and ventilation. This combination of 
masonry and woodwork is not to be recommended in general, but 
should only be used as a matter of economy. 

The use of wood in the structure of brick walls, while some¬ 
times necessary, should be avoided where possible. Wooden lintels 



Fig. 119. Brick Veneer. 


125 






BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


11(1 


were formerly used to considerable extent, but are objectionable 
for many reasons. Besides being combustible, it is almost impossible 
to obtain beams, of the large size which their purpose requires, 
which are dry, and the shrinkage is pretty sure to make a crack at 
some time. (Fig- 120.) Wooden plates inserted in the wall, for 
a level bearing for floor timbers, should be avoided, as their shrink¬ 
age will leave the bricks above unsupported. Wooden lintels may 
be used under arches to form a square opening, but the arch should 
always spring from the solid wall beyond the lintel to relieve it from 

the load above. (Fig. 121.) 
Wooden strips are sometimes 
built into the walls for a nail¬ 
ing for furring and finish, but, 
if used, should be thin enough 
to lay in the joint; and wooden 
bricks, often used for nailings, 
by their shrinkage will become 
loose besides weakening the 
walls. 

A better way is to use a strong mortar into which the nails of 
the furring strips may be driven or porous terra cotta blocks may 
be set for nailings in special work. 

Cleaning Down. When a piece of brickwork is completed, 
the exterior will need to be cleaned of mortar stains and discolorations. 
This is done by washing down 
the wall with a dilute solu¬ 
tion of muriatic acid, using a 
scrubbing brush, followed by 
washing with clear water to 
remove all trace of the acid. 

The wall is then often given 
a coat of linseed oil cut with 
turpentine. At this time also, all bad joints are pointed up, the 
spaces under window sills are filled up, the joints of stonework 
pointed, and the wall left whole and clean. 

Waterproofing of Walls. Brick walls in exposed situations 
aie often treated with some substance to render them waterproof. 
One of the most successful processes is known as “Sylvester’s Pro- 


























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


117 


cess/’ and consists in applying two washes to the walls, one com¬ 
posed of Castile soap and water, and the other of alum and water. 
These applied alternately will generally render the work impervious. 
Several patented solutions are now upon the market, each of which 
is warranted to protect against moisture. 

Efflorescence. Very disagreeable and very common is the 
white efflorescence which often appears upon the face of the bricks, 
due to the salts of soda and potash being dissolved by the water 
and left on the surface by evaporation. Sylvester’s solution is a 
preventive of this, applied in the same manner as for waterproofing, 
and the danger may be diminished by using stronger cement in the 
face joints. 

Repairs. In effecting repairs in masonry, when new work 
is to be connected with old, the mortar of the old work must be 
thoroughly cleaned off, along the 
surface where the junction is to 
be made, and the surface thor¬ 
oughly wet. The bond and other 
arrangements will depend upon the 
circumstances of the case. The 
surfaces connected should be fitted 
as accurately as practicable, so 
that by using but little mortar, 
no disunion may take place from 
settling. As a rule, it is better 
that new work should butt against 
the old, either with a straight joint visible on the face, or let into a 
chase, sometimes called a “ slip-joint ” (Fig. 122), so that the straight 
joint may not show, but, if it is necessary to bond them together, the 
new work should be built in a quick-setting cement mortar, and 
each part of it allowed to set before being loaded. In pointing old 
masonry, all the decayed mortar must be completely raked out with 
a hooked iron point, and the surfaces well wetted before the fresh 
mortar is applied. Lining of old walls should be not less than 
eight inches thick, anchored every two feet. 

Superintendence. In superintending brickwork, the main 
things to be observed have been pointed out in connection with the 
construction. Especial care should be taken to see that the bricks 



137 
















118 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


are properly wet, that sufficient mortar, of the proper quality', is 
used, and that the joints are thoroughly filled. The bonding of 
the wall must be constantly noticed, especially face work and piers. 
The work should be measured from time to time and the position 
of all openings noted. Reveals and jambs shoidd be measured and 
plumbed, and the leveling of courses carefully watched. At the 
level of the floors, the bedding of all bearing plates must be watched 
and the number and position of floor and wall anchors noticed. 
Recesses and flues should be carefully followed out, and the tying 
together of hollow walls should be frequent and effective. When 
work is stopped, the top of the wall should be covered, to prevent 
rain from washing out the soft mortar in summer, or from entering 
and freezing in winter; and to obtain the best results, the laying 
of brick walls should not be attempted in freezing weather. 

For the adaptation of brick construction to modern city building, 
we may conceive the foregoing principles as elements to be applied 
to the different conditions and uses to which the walls will be put. 

Bearing walls are those which carry besides their own weight 
the weight of floors or roofs which bear upon them. The thickness 
of these walls must necessarily increase as does the height of the 
building, and they must also be strong enough to brace the building 
against lateral forces such as wind pressure, or the vibrations from 
external or internal sources. 

Curtain walls are those built between steel or iron columns, or 
between piers, and carry no loads except their own weight. Their 
thickness needs to be only such as to protect the outside of the build¬ 
ing and give support to walls above. 

Skeleton construction has all walls, as well as other parts of the 
building, supported by steel or iron columns and beams. In this 
case the masonry needs to be only of sufficient thickness to protect 
the building and the frame against the elements, unless these walls 
are depended upon for stiffening and bracing the building. The 
exterior walls may be of brick, concrete, terra-cotta, or other fire- 
resisting material, depending in a measure upon the location, cus¬ 
tom, experience of builders, and the influence of union labor in 
various localities. 

In the case of a skeleton frame, the walls of each succeeding 
stoiy will be supported independently and may be considered as 


138 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


119 


curtain walls. At the present standard prices of materials, a build¬ 
ing for ordinary floor loads can be erected eight stories high, with 
continuous bearing walls of masonry, more cheaply than with piers 
and curtain walls or skeleton construction. If, however, the extra 
land area, which the thicker bearing walls will require, is of value 
enough, it will be economy to use skeleton construction for six or 
even five-story buildings, depending largely upon the character 
and location of the building. 

CUT STONEWORK. 

First in consideration of the superintendence of stonework is 
the preparation of the material. In former times, for a work of 
importance, the stone was often brought to the building site in the 
rough, as it came from the quarry, and all stone cutting was done 
upon the spot, but in modern practice the stone will be prepared at 
a stone yard, often by machinery, and will be ready to be set when 
received. The stone should be carefully examined when delivered 
and not be allowed to accumulate in great quantities without inspec¬ 
tion, as a thorough examination is then more difficult. According 
to the nature of the work, the stone will have received more or less 
of preparation by being worked into the various shapes and finishes 
suited for its purpose. 

Stock. The principal building stones in use in this country are 
granite, limestone, marble and sandstone, and these will be selected 
for a given building with reference to color, durability and strength. 
Probably the question of color will enter more strongly into the 
selection than any other consideration, but this should not wholly 
overshadow the consideration of strength and durability. Cheap¬ 
ness and accessibility are factors which enter largely into the question 
of stone for a building, and in cities, the resistance to atmospheric 
action and especially to fire, may well be considered. While no build¬ 
ing stone will resist the action of fire for any length of time, of the 
different kinds of stone mentioned, fine-grained sandstone will proba¬ 
bly stand the best, granite next, and marble and limestone the least. 

Testing of Stone. Although it is possible in most cases 
to obtain stone for a building from some well-known quarry, the 
qualities of which have been sufficiently proved, occasion may arise 
when some simple tests of a certain stone may be desirable. These 


129 



120 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


tests should be made for compactness, absorption, strength and 
fracture. The compactness of a stone can be best determined by 
comparison with some known stone of similar constituents, when the 
least porous in appearance will usually prove the most durable. 
The porosity may be determined by the power of absorption which 
it exerts. This may be found by immersing the thoroughly dried 
stone in water, and noting the difference in weight between the 
dry and the wet stone. The absorption of ten per cent of the weight 
of the stone denotes a degree of porosity which is liable to become, 
after a while, grimy in appearance, while a hard non-absorbent 
stone suffers little from age. 

In situations where the atmosphere is charged with acids, as 
in large cities or manufacturing towns, there will be danger from the 
solubility of the stone, especially in damp climates. Too great a 
tendency may be discovered by soaking the stone in a dilute solu¬ 
tion of acid, or by dropping acid upon the surface, when presence 
of soluble carbonates will be denoted by an effervescence. The 
presence of substances easy of solution in water, may be detected 
by placing some of the powdered stone in a glass with water and 
allowing the particles to settle. If the water is later disturbed, the 
presence of soluble matter will cause the water to turn muddy, but 
if the water remains clear it will denote the presence of only insoluble 
crystals. 

FINISHING OF STONE. 

The method of finishing a stone has a great effect, not only upon 
its appearance, but upon its durability. The less pounding a stone 
receives the stronger it will be, since the repeated jar tends to separate 
the particles and render the stpne less durable. For this reason 
it is only granite and hard sandstones that are usually treated by 
hammering the surface, the softer stones being generally finished 
by the use of some form of chisel. 

Tools. The principal tools used in stone-cutting are: 

1. The axe or pean hammer. This is a solid tool with two 
cutting edges, and is used for making the draft line or margin on 
granite and in leveling off the face. (Fig. 123A.) 

2. The tooth axe is similar to the axe, except that the cutting 
edges are divided into teeth. This is used on sandstones as well as 
on granite. (Fig. 123B.) 


130 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


121 


3. The bush hammer, a square head cut into a number of 
points. This is used for finishing sandstone and granite. (Fig. 124A.) 

4. The crandall, an iron handle with a long slot at one end 
into which are wedged a number of double-headed points. These 
points are secured by a key and may be removed for sharpening. 



This ’ is a common way of finishing sandstone after the surface has 
been leveled by means of a tooth chisel. (Fig. 124B.) 

5. The patent hammer, a hammer formed of a number of thin 
blades of steel which are bolted into a heavy head, and used for 
finishing granite and hard sandstones. (Fig. 125A.) 

6. Chisels of various form, r—\ 
among which are to be found the /IT®®] 
point No. 1, chisel and tooth chisel { )— p— 

Nos. 2 and 3, the drove No. 4, l [dLgy 
all for use with a mallet, the 

hammer chisel No. 5, and pitch¬ 
ing tools Nos. 6 and 7. (Fig. 125.) ? 7 

Finish. The simplest of | | J 

the various finishes which are 
given to cut stone is the rockjace, 
shown in Fig. 126. In this, the » » 

face of the stone is left rough, \J \U Z_J vJ ID O 

the edges being pitched off to a 1 3 3 4 5 6 . 7 

line. A margin or draft line is 

often cut around the edge, leaving the center with rockface. 
(Fig 127.) Pointed work (Fig. 128) is done by taking off the 
surface of the stone with a point, and is made rough or fine- 
pointed according to the position or importance of the stone. This 


ili 


131 















































122 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


is used mainly in granite, a similar effect being obtained in soft 
stones by use of the tooth chisel. Tooled work (see Fig. 129) is done 
in straight lines clear across the face of the stone and is used a great 
deal for sandstone and limestone. 

Bush hammering, as its name implies, consists in hammering 




the stone, usually granite, with a bush hammer, leaving the surface 
covered with points. 

Patent hammered work, Fig. 130, leaves the surface covered 
with a series of ridges and is known as “six-cut,” “ eight-cut/ 1 or 
“ ten-cut ” work, according to the number of points to the inch. This 
is a usual finish for granite and is generally called for as “eight-cut” 
work. Crandalled work, Fig. 131, is used for sandstone more than 
any other finish, and consists of a series of lines crossing each other, 
or running all one way, according to whether the crandall is used 



from one side or from both. If a smooth finish is desired the stones 
may be rubbed. This is easily and cheaply done when the stone is 
first sawed, and makes a good finish. Vermiculated work, shown 
in Fig. 132, is obtained by working the surface all over in imitation 


132 










































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


123 


of the destruction by worms. This is expensive and is rarely used 
except for quoins. 

The inspection of stone at the building should be very thorough 
especially in the matter of finish. The finer 
the degree of finish, the more costly will be 
the labor, and for this reason there is often a 
tendency to slight the work. Eight-cut gran¬ 
ite will often be found to be six-cut, and fine- 
pointed or fine-crandalled work will some¬ 
times be found to be rough and coarse. Fig. 132 . vermicuiated 

Work. 



STONE nASONRY. 


Rubble. Of the different kinds of stonework, rubble masonry 
requires less preparation of the material than any other use of the 
stone, and covers a wide range of construction, from ordinary founda¬ 
tion walls, such as we have already considered, to the handsome 

well-pointed masonry of 
churches and other build¬ 
ings. 

Two definite classes of 
rubble work are recognized: 
(1) uncoursed rubble, in 
which stones of irregular 
shape are laid as they come 
to hand with no attempt at 
level courses, as in Fig. 133; 
and (2) coursed rubble, in 
which the blocks are lev¬ 
elled off at regular heights to a horizontal bed, as in Fig. 134. A 
wall of rubble is finished by pointing up the joints with cement 
mortar colored to taste, usually to the same color as the stone, when 
this is at all even colored. Sometimes a false joint of red or white 
mortar is run upon this pointing to imitate ashlar work. 

Uncoursed rubble is sometimes laid with irregular pieces having 
hammered joints which are fitted together with no “spalls,” or small 
stones, between. (Fig. 135.) This is an expensive and tedious 
process but is very effective when well done. The coursing of 
rubble is not necessarily uniform, or at the same level throughout, 


























124 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



but may rise and fall by level stages to accommodate the size of 
the materials. 

The superintendence of this class of work, beyond a general 
inspection of the quality and soundness of the stone, will be mainly 
to see that the stones are well laid after being suitably prepared by 
roughly squaring with a hammer, and knocking off all weak angles 

and projections. The stones 
should be clean and free from 
dust, and should be moistened 
before laying. Mortar should 
be used in sufficient quantities 
to permit of each stone being 
firmly imbedded, and all hol¬ 
lows between the large stones 
should be filled with small 
stones carefully bedded in the 
mortar. All large stones should 
be laid on their natural bed, 
and should be so used that the side parallel to the bed shall be the 
largest, so that the stones shall lie flat and in no case be set on 
edge or on end. Care must be taken to break joints, and no side 
joint should form an angle with the bed of less than 60 degrees. 

The bonding of a rubble wall must be carefully watched, and 
bond stones freely used. If the 
rubble is backed with brick, as is 
often the case, iron clamps and 
ties should be inserted, which may 
run through the wall and turn up 
up behind the brick, if the back of 
the wall is to be concealed, and 
they should run to the inside 
course of bricks in any case. 

(Fig. 136.) If rubble is used 
as a backing for cut stone, the 
facing should contain a large 
proportion of thick stones which will bond well with the rubble. 
These bond stones may be left rough at the back and sides, but 
the upper and lower beds should be level, so that they will have 



Fig. 135. Hammered Joints with no 
“ Spalls.'’ 


134 


























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


125 


no tendency to wedge off the backing. This backing should be 
carried up at the same time as the face work with the coursing 
leveled off at the same place. A good proportion of thick stones 
running two-thirds or more across the thickness of 
the wall is better than a few extending through the 
wall. 

Ashlar Masonry consists of blocks of stone 
which have been cut to a regular figure, generally 
rectangular in shape, and laid in courses of usually 
a foot or more in height. (Fig. 137.) If the 
courses are not maintained at the same level con¬ 
tinuously, but are laid of stones of unequal height 
but still level and plumb, the work is called “ broken 
ashlar,” shown in Fig. 138. 

In all ashlar work of soft material, such as 
limestone, no stone should have a length greater 

& & Fig. 136. Iron Ties. 

than three times its height. In harder stone the 
length may be four or five times the height. The thickness in soft 
stone may be once-and-one-half or twice the height; in hard stone, 
three times the height. 

Laying. The bed upon which the stones are laid should be level, 
and cleared of dust or refuse, and well moistened with water. Upon 

this the bed of mortar is spread 
evenly. Wooden wedges of the 
thickness of the joint are then 
laid on the face of the bed, 
and the stone carefully low¬ 
ered upon the wedges, to be 
moved into exact position by 
the aid of a “pinch bar.” In 
using a bar or rollers in hand¬ 
ling cut stone, it will be nec- 

H jj'"'" " |[ essary to protect the edges of 

Fig. 137 . Ashlar Masonry. the stone by bagging or other 

“softening.” When the stone is in its final position, the wedges 
may be removed and the stone settled into place and leveled by 
striking with a wooden mallet. In the case of heavy stones where 
there would be danger of the weight of the stone squeezing the 




135 

































126 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


mortar out of the joint, the wooden wedges are allowed to remain 
until the mortar has set. The bed of mortar should be kept 
back an inch or so from the face of the stone, so that the 
stone shall not bear on its outer edge. This will save raking out 
the mortar when the wall is to be pointed, and will prevent any dan¬ 
ger of the splitting off of “spalls” on the face, which might occur 

on account of the mortar on 


the face of the joint becoming 
hard sooner than the inside, 
when the unequal settlement 
would bring pressure on the 
edge of the stone. 

The same defect may oc¬ 
cur if the bed of the stone is 
cut hollow or slack, as in Fig. 
139, when the settlement of 
the mortar will bring the 
whole pressure upon the front 
edge of the stone with the 



Fig. 138. Broken Ashlar. 


same result. For this reason, care should be taken that the bed 
joints are square and true. Door and window sills should be 
bedded only under their ends, as the natural settlement will cause 
them to break if bedded under the opening. 

(Fig. 140.) Stone work in damp situations 
should be set in cement mortar, but lime may 
be used if the situation is dry. Limestone and 
marble, and some sandstones, are often badly 
stained by the use of cement mortar, and inquiry 
in respect to this should always be made before 
using an unfamiliar stone. 

In case of danger from this source, Lafarge 
cement, a cement made of lime, plaster of Paris, 
and marble dust, may be used, which should be 
plastered over the back of the stone as well, if cement must be used 
in the backing. 

Bonding. Care must be taken that no vertical joint in any 
course comes over a joint in the course below, but the stones should 
break joints or overlap, preferably to an extent of from once to once- 



Fig. 139. Hollow and 
Slack Joints. 




































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


127 


and-a-half the height of the course, so that each stone will be sup¬ 
ported by at least two stones of the course below, and will in turn 
support at least two stones of the course above. This wdll not only 
distribute the pressure of the 
weight above, but will tie the 
wall together in its length, by 
means of the friction of the 
stones where they overlap. For 
the same reason, the thickness of 
the stones should vary, so as to 
make a bond in and out of 
the wall, as in Fig. 141, and 
at least one stone in every ten square feet of wall should be 
the full thickness. The strongest bond in a wall 
of cut ashlar is one in which each course contains 
a header and stretcher alternately, the outer end 
of each header coming on the middle of the 
stretcher. (Fig. 142.) In broken ashlar work the 
bond should be carefully preserved, and, in the 
case of broken ashlar used with a brick backing, 
it will be convenient to use stones of a thickness 
of four, eight, and twelve inches, alternating, so 
that the bond may be obtained through and 
Fig. 141. Bond stone. through w ithout much cutting of the bricks. 

In the backing of ashlar, the joints of the brickwork should be 
made as thin as possible, and 
cement should be used to pre¬ 
vent shrinkage of the joints, 
which will necessarily be more 
numerous than the joints of 
the ashlar facing. Brick 
backing should not be less 
than eight inches thick, and, 
if the facing is in courses ex¬ 
ceeding a foot in height, each 
large piece should be tied to Flg - 142, Bonded Ashlar, 

the brick by iron clamps in the proportion of about every three feet 
in the length of the wall, and two feet in the height. It will be of 





137 
























































128 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



advantage in this class of work if the horizontal joints are not 
allowed to run to a great length. Changing the level of the courses 
every four or five feet will make a good looking wall. Broken ash¬ 
lar is usually prepared at the building site, but it will be a saving if 
the stones are cut to the required heights in the yard, leaving only an 
end joint to be cut at the building. 

Quoins, Jambs and Lintels. The corner stones of a building 
are called quoins, and they are often given prominence over the face 
of the wall, as in Fig. .143. In broken ashlar 
the quoins should be as ‘large in height as 
the largest of the wall stones. Stones at the 
sides of openings are called jamb stones and 
are often used in a manner similar to quoins. 
Lintels or caps are the stones which cover door 
or window openings. They are usually in one 
If piece, as in Fig. 144 A, but are sometimes nec-. 

Fig. 143. Quoins. essarily jointed. (Fig. 144 B.) In this case 

the joints should be “toggled 
opening which is too great for 
its carrying capacity, it may 
be assisted by the use of a steel 
angle-bar or beam. (Fig. 145.) 

Lintels should * bear at the 
ends at least four inches, and 
in the case of the lintel being 
thicker than the jamb, it 
should have bearing enough 
to reach beyond any recess 
which the window frame may 
require, as in Fig. 146, so that 
the inside of the lintel will be 
supported. 

Columns, Arches and 
Trimmings. Columns, where the material will allow, should be cut 
in one piece with separate capitals and bases, and great care should 
be taken in cutting, and also in setting, to have the bed joints per¬ 
fectly level to the axis of the column. Clear cement mortar should 
be used for setting, and especial care taken to keep the outside of 




138 









































OFFICE BUILDING OF THE CHICAGO EDISON COMPANY. CHICAGO, ILL. 


Sheply, Rutan & Coolidge, Architects, Chicago. 


Two Lower Stories of Pink Milford Granite, Polished: Upper Stories of the Same Granite, with Ten Cut 
Surface. Built in 1899. Note the Decorative Feature of the Lighting in Lower and 

Upper Portion of Building. 



































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


129 



Fig. 145. Steel Sup¬ 
port of Lintel. 


the joint empty for a depth of at least three-quarters of an inch, 
to prevent chipping the column. Lintels or cornices over columns 
are often exposed on both sides and should be cut from one stone 
if practicable; if not, they may be built up as 
shown. (Fig. 147.) In this case the stones 
should be carefully tied and clamped together. 

Arches, if too large to be cut with solid 
stones, may be built up where they are required 
to show both sides. (Fig. 148.) In the setting 
of stone arches great care is necessary to preserve 
the perfect form of the arch. The joints should 
always be of equal thickness throughout and the 
mortar kept back from the face. This is of greater 
necessity than ?n the horizontal courses, as the 
joints of the arch are under increased pressure. The backing of 
arches should be laid in cement, and well tied to the stones of the 
arch by clamps. Where two arches come together, the first stone, 
called the “skewback,” should be in one piece for the two arches 
(Fig. 149), for if each stone were cut to the shape of its arch there 

_ u _ would be left a small wedge-shaped 

I If y _ stone, A, which, if separate, might 

5= . 8=~ crowd the arch stones in. The same 

- * thing should be done where an arch 

comes near to a corner as at B. 

Flat arches are often used, but, 
while they are architecturally pleasing, 
they are liable to constructional weak¬ 
ness, and if they cannot be given a 
good height, they should be cut as a 
lintel with false joints on the face. If 
the opening is not wide, a flat arch may 
be cut in three pieces, the key with 
its side pieces being separate from 
the other two pieces, as in Fig. 150. In this case, and also in 
the case of B in Fig. 144, the center should be set about a quarter- 
inch higher than the jambs, to allow for settlement. 

Centering. For the construction of arches, whether of stone 
-or other material, wood centers will be required. These should be 


3IIZI 

ir 


X 


T 


H 



Fig. 146. Bearing of Stone Lintel. 


130 












































130 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


strongly made and should be left in position until the mortar in the 
joints has become hard. Centers for small arches are usually made 
of plank, with two ribs set apart to the thickness required, and con- 



wedged up in setting, to permit of 


nected for a bearing surface by 
strips of | X 2-inch stick nailed 
to the tops of the ribs. A center 
of this sort is supported by 
wooden posts from the sill or 
floor below. If the arch is of a 
large span, the pieces will be 
more in number, in order to use 
planks of ordinary width, and 
the center will need additional 
support and ties as shown by Fig. 
151. These centers should be 
asy adjustment or removal. 


GENERAL RULES FOR LAYING STONE. 


1. Build the masonry, as far as possible, in a series of courses, 
perpendicular, or as nearly so as possible, to the direction of the 
pressure which they have to bear, and by breaking joints, avoid all 
long continuous joints parallel to that pressure. 



of Arch. 



Fig. 149. Solid Skewbacks. 


2. Use the largest stones for the foundation course. 

3. Lay all stones which consist of layers in such a manner that 
the principal pressure which they have to bear shall act in a direction 


140 























































131 


perpendicular, or as nearly so as possible, to the direction of the 
layers. This is called laying the stone on its natural bed, and is of 
primary importance for strength and durability. 

4. Moisten the surface of dry and porous stones before bedding 
them, in order that the mortar may not be dried too fast and reduced 
to powder by the stone absorbing its moisture. 

5. Fill every part of every joint, and all spaces between the 
stones, with mortar, taking care at the same time that such spaces 
shall be as small as possible. 

6. The rougher the stones, the better the mortar should be. 
The principal object of the 
mortar is to equalize the 
pressure; and the more 
nearly the stones are dressed 
to closely fitting surfaces, 
the less important is the 
mortar. Not infrequently, 
this rule is exactly reversed * 
i.e., the finer the dressing, 
the better the quality of the mortar used. 

All projecting courses, such as sills and lintels, should be covered 
with boards, bagging etc., as the work progresses, to protect them 

from injury and mortar stains. 
When setting cut stone, a 
pailful of clean water should 
be kept at hand, and when 
any fresh mortar comes in 
contact with the face of the 
work it should be immediately 
washed off. 

General Inspection, The 

Fig. 151. Wooden Centering for Arch. super i nt endence of Cut stone- 
work requires constant attention, as it is expensive and annoy¬ 
ing to be obliged to remove a stone after it has been set in the 
wall. There are also many devices by which defective stock 
and workmanship may be concealed, which can only be 
avoided by vigilance and the exercise of considerable knowledge of 
practices. 




141 
































132 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


The first thing necessary is a thorough inspection of the stone 
as delivered, and a careful search for defects which are known to be 
likely to occur in the various kinds of stone. 

Granite often develops local defects, such as seams, knots, or 
brown stains known as sap. The latter will be apparent upon exam¬ 
ination, but seams are to be detected by striking the stone with a 
hammer, when a flawless stone will ring clearly. 

Sandstones will often be found with small holes, called sand 
holes, and of an uneven color; there will also be local discolorations 
which are sometimes developed by cutting, and do not appear until 
so much expense has been put upon the stone that the contractor 
is often tempted to pass it as perfect if he can do so. Considerable 
firmness may be necessaiy to obtain work in exact conformity with 
the specifications, but this should be insisted upon at all times. 
Another defect which requires the exercise of great judgment is the 
matter of patched stones. Expensive stones are often marred by 
the cutting or handling, and are then so skilfully patched by the use 
of melted shellac and stone dust, that they may be overlooked until 
set, when they often cannot be replaced without considerable delay. 
In this case, if the owner agrees, they may be allowed to remain, 
but the superintendent should see that the 
patching is properly done. Where a mould¬ 
ing in this case has been knocked off and 
simply stuck on again with shellac, the 
superintendent should insist that a square 
block should be dovetailed in and the 
moulding re-cut. 

In the dressing of the stone, care 
should be taken to see that the work is as 
finely cut as called for, and mouldings should 
be cut according to details and matched 
Pig. 152. ^improper stone together perfectly. Ashlar work should be 
cut with full bed joints without hollows or 
thin edges (Fig. 152), and should be cut so as to lie on its natural bed. 
Anchors should be freely used, and the bonding of ashlar and backing 
carefully watched. The setting of columns, arch stones, and moulded 
work should be especially noted to see that the mortar is kept well 
back from the edges to prevent their splitting off, and the tying of 



142 








BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


133 


continuous courses to each other at the ends should be insisted upon. 
Projecting courses must be bevelled off on the top to shed water and 
should also have a drip cut on the under side, so that the water will 
drop off and not run down the side of the building. (Fig. 153.) 
The bed which lies in the wall, however, must not be bevelled, but 
must be cut level to maintain the full bearing of the stones in the wall. 

Pointing. When the exterior masonry of the building is done, 
the whole of the stonework must be washed down and pointed. 
This should never be done in freezing weather, and if done in ex¬ 
tremely hot weather there will be danger of the mortar drying too 
quickly. For ordinary stonework, Portland cement mixed with an 
equal quantity of sand, and enough water to make a stiff mortar, 
makes a good pointing mortar; but for limestone, marble, or any 
stone which will be stained by cement, 
lime mortar, Lafarge, or other non¬ 
staining cement must be used. If the 
joints are not already clean, they must 
be raked out to the depth of an inch 
and moistened, and the pointing mor¬ 
tar applied with a small pointing 
trowel, and then rubbed in smooth 
with a jointing tool. Either a concave, 
flush, or projecting joint may be made, Fig - 153 - Drip of Cormce stone, 
but the concave joint is more durable than the others. The washing 
down of the stonework will be done at the same time as the point¬ 
ing, and should be done with dilute muriatic acid, using a stiff 
scrubbing brush. Wire brushes are sometimes used to clean down 
marble and granite work. The trade of pointing is in some locali¬ 
ties made a distinct branch of building trade, and in others the work 
is done by the mason. 

When possible, a professional “pointer’ ’ should be obtained, 
as he will usually have better appliances, ready for immediate use, 
than will the mason, whose use for them will naturally be occasional. 

ROOFING AND HETAL WORK. 

With the completion of the exterior masonry of a building will 
come, in most cases, the covering in, as practically nothing further 
than the rough work of flooring can be done inside until the work 
is protected from the weather by a roof. 



143 










134 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 



For the roof covering, a variety of materials may be used, com¬ 
mon among which may be mentioned tin, copper, slate, tiles, and for 
flat roofs, tar and gravel composition, besides many patented prep¬ 
arations of paper and tar which may be used for temporary roofs. 

Tin Roofs, The cheapest, and at the same time the least 
satisfactory of permanent roofing materials is probably tin. This 
may be used on steep roofs or on comparatively flat roofs, the least 
inclination advisable being f inch to the foot. The boarding under 
a tin roof should be smoothly matched and covered with dry sheathing 
paper, and any holes in the boarding should be filled up. The sheets 
of tin for a flat roof are prepared by turning the edges over so as to 
lock with the edge of the next sheet as shown at A, Fig. 154, and 

they should be painted on 
the under side and allowed 
to dry before laying. The 
usual method of laying is 
to run the sheets in courses 
across the roof, each course 
being nailed at the top with 
short wire nails under the 
This method of fastening should not be permitted 
in a roof of any extent, as the rigid nailing of each sheet will 
give the roof a wavy appearance when the metal expands, and 
the wrenching of the tin will often draw out the nails or tear the tin 
from the heads. When this occurs, the great mass of tin will rattle 
against the roof, besides being exposed to the danger of leaking. 
The proper way to secure the tin is by the use of strips of tin called 
cleats, cut about H X 4 inches. These cleats should be locked over 
the turned edge of the sheet and nailed to the roof, being concealed 
by the next sheet added. These cleats should be used about every 
fourteen inches along the upper edge and the side of the sheet of tin, 
and they will allow the roof to expand without drawing the nails or 
destroying the tin. 

When the roof has been covered, the seams are all pounded down 
and carefully soldered, making a continuous covering. 

Against chimneys, dormers, or other openings in the roof, the 
tin should be turned up at least four inches to be capped by vertical 
flashings of lead or zinc, with gable ends carried out and tacked over 


Fig. 154. Seams in Tin Roof. 


lap of the tin. 


144 








BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


135 


the edge of the mouldings and finish. Connections should be made 
with metal gutters and finish by locking and soldering. 

For large and steep roofs of tin, greater allowance must be made 
for the expansion, and this is done by means of standing seams, B, 
which are formed by locking together vertically the sloping seams of 
the roof, the horizontal seams being flat. To do this the sheets of 
tin are locked and soldered together into strips running up the roof, 
and these strips are turned up and locked together without soldering, 
held in place by cleats. When finished, the seam should be about 
an inch in height. 

Standing seams are often used for effect, and a still stronger 
appearance may be given by ribs of wood over which the tin is locked. 
The tinning of a roof should be carefully watched to see that tin of 
the required quality is used, that the cleats are put in as described, 
and that acid is not used in soldering. Only resin should be allowed 
as a flux for soldering, as acid, which is more easily used, will injure 
the tin. The standard sizes of roofing plates are 14 X 20 inches and 
20 X 28 inches; and they are made in two thicknesses marked I C 
and I X, the former weighing 8 oz. to the square foot and the latter 
ten ounces. The lighter brand is more extensively used, but for first- 
class work and flashings, nothing but I X tin should be used. Im¬ 
perfect sheets, called “wasters,” are put upon the market, and are 
packed in boxes marked I C W or I X W according to the thickness, 
so that where perfect plates, called “prime,” are called for, the super¬ 
intendent should reject any boxes marked “W.” The best grades of 
tin are now sold with the name of the brand and the weight stamped 
on every sheet, and this should be noted for first-class work. It is 
worth remembering that the smaller sheets will make a stronger and 
better roof than the larger, and for a steep roof with standing seams 
the sheets should be laid with the narrow way for the width between 
the sloping seams, as this gives more chance for expansion. Tin 
roofs should not be painted until the rain has had a chance to wash 
the tin clean of grease, and all traces of resin should be removed. 

Tin roofs, while under construction, should be kept clean, and 
rubbish never be allowed to collect, as nails and other hard substances 
are liable to cause perforations of the tin if stepped on by careless 
workmen. If tin is used for covering of a fireproof roof, the top 
filling should be of porous terra cotta which will receive the nails, and 


145 




136 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


an even surface should be secured by smoothly plastering the surface 
of the terra cotta with hard cement. Steep fireproof roofs are often 
made by using hollow terra cotta tiles between T-irons, which may 
be treated in the same way. 

Copper Roofing. The methods of laying copper roofing differ 
very little from those described for tin, except that the sheets of copper 
are much larger and therefore lend themselves more easily to moulded 
forms such as ridge rolls, hips, finials, etc. Copper roofing is often 
“ crimped,” that is, the surface is covered by fine corrugations which 
present a softer and more even appearance than the plain metal, and 
conceal the wavy appearance which plain sheets will acquire. 

Slate Roofing. On roofs which pitch more than five inches 
to the foot, slates may be used. In this case the boarding should be 
matched and covered with tarred paper. On this surface the slates 
are laid in layers beginning at the eaves with a double course, and 

working upwards to the ridge. The 
gauging of the courses is determined 
by the “ head cover,” that is, the 
distance which the top of the slate 
is overlapped by the second slate 
above. (Fig. 155.) This lap should 
not be less than three inches. 

The usual sizes of slates are 
eight by sixteen and ten by twenty 
inches, and they run about T \ to }- 
inch in thickness. Slates should be 
put on with tinned, galvanized, or 
copper nails, two to each slate, 
and care must be taken that the nails are not driven in hard enough 
to crack the slates, and yet hard enough to prevent them from rattling. 
The nails should have large heads and be 3-penny or 4-penny nails. 
Where slates are cut, as against hips or valleys, care should be taken 
that each slate receives tw T o nails. For thick slates the holes should be 
drilled and countersunk. For first-class work the slates, for a dis¬ 
tance of two feet each side of valleys and above gutters, should be “ ren¬ 
dered,” i.e., bedded in elastic cement, and the same precaution taken 
for a foot in width against hips, ridges and all vertical parts. If slating 
is required for very flat slopes, the whole should be laid in cement. 



Fig. 155. Head Cover of Slates. 


146 





BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


137 


Flashings. Valleys in slate roofs should be open valleys of 
metal at least eighteen inches wide, often laid, like a tin roof, with the 
end joints locked and soldered and the edges securely nailed to the 
roof boarding. Tin, zinc, or copper may be used, but copper is to be 
preferred for valleys, as well as for all flashings. Where the slope 
of the roof changes or where dormers, chimneys, or other vertical 
parts cut the roof, wide aprons of metal should be set and turned up 
against the rising wall to be covered over by the wall covering, or 
with lead counter-flashings built into the brickwork. Gables are 
finished by continuous metal members, run at least eight inches under 
the slates, and tacked over the edge of the wooden finish, or cemented 
into grooves cut in stone copings, called “reglets.” 

A good practice is to cap all flashings; that is, the metal which 
runs under the slates is simply turned up against the wall, and a 
separate piece of metal is wedged and cemented into the reglet and 
turned down over the other flashing to within half an inch of the roof, 
allowing free movement to each, which will be necessary on account 
of expansion and shrinkage. For the same reason it is much better 
to form the valleys and hips of sheets which are laid in with each 
course, lapping, and not locked and soldered. 

Slates are sometimes laid on strips of wood or battens without 
boarding, but do not make so tight a roof; for fireproof roofs, however, 
it has been common to secure 
the slates to small T bars by 
bolts and then plaster the under 
side, but a better way is to lay 
porous terra cotta blocks between 
the irons to which the slates may 
be nailed or cemented. A method 
of slating which may be em¬ 
ployed where absolute tightness is not required is called half- 
slating, and consists ill leaving a space between the sloping edges of 
each slate, not exceeding half the width of the slate, as shown in 
Fig. 156. 

In appearance, good slates should have an even color without 
spots, and present a hard straight grain, which shines in certain lights 
with a metallic, silken luster. They should be square and true, and 
free from warped or nicked edges, and neither too brittle or too soft. 



147 



138 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Tiles. The use of tiles for roofing, although by no means a 
modern practice, has o f late years become more general in this country. 
Tiles are made in a variety of shapes, the general principle, in all cases, 
being that of a slab of baked clay, moulded with an interlocking roll 
or rim. Tiles are laid on battens or on boarding, as described for 
slates; the difference being, that instead of a double lap for tightness, 
the tightness of tiling depends upon the fitting of the tiles into each 
other. Some of the modern forms of tiles are shown in Fig. 157. 
With tiles should be used copper or zinc for valleys and flashings, 


but ridges and hips are gener¬ 
ally formed by tiles of special 
patterns. Plain tiles have long 
been used in England and are 
in most cases found to be in 
as good condition as when 



Pig. 157. Shapes of Roof Tiles. 


new. Tiles may be used on roofs which have a pitch of more than 
22 V degrees, but will need a free use of elastic cement, especially in 
valleys, hips, and ridges. In appearance, tiles should be of even 
color, free from fire checks, but well burned and non-absorbent, of 
uniform size and without blisters, cracks or warped surfaces. 

Composition Roofing. For roofs of a pitch of f inch to the 
foot or less, a composition roofing, made of several thicknesses of 
paper coated with tar, and covered with gravel on top, may be used 
to advantage. The mode of constructing a composition roof will be 
to first cover the boarding, or, in case a fireproof roof, the smooth 
top of the concrete with dry resin-sized felt with a lap of two inches, 
tacked only often enough to hold it in place. Over this are laid three 
full thicknesses of tarred felt, each sheet lapping two-thirds of its 
width over the preceding one, and the whole covered with a uniform 
coat of pitch mopped on. Upon this coating, two layers of tarred 
felt are tacked, each lapped about twenty-two inches, and the whole 
mopped over and a thick coat of pitch flowed on. As the durability 
of the roof depends upon the paper, only the best should be used, 
and the pitch should not be so hot that it will destroy the life of the 
paper. Upon the final coat of pitch is spread immediately a coat of 
clean white gravel, completely covering the whole, as a protection. 
This composition of tar and gravel makes a very good roof, but is 
suitable only for roofs up to a grade of three-quarters inch to a foot. 


148 






BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


139 


If much steeper, the heavy coat of tar will run in hot weather, and 
settling down, will gradually fill the gutters. 

A composition of pulverized slate and asphalt, applied in layers 
with felting, has been placed upon the market, and is more adaptable 
to various pitches than tar and gravel. 

The same precautions regarding the flashing of vulnerable parts 
will be needed in the laying of composition roofs that we have noted 
for siates or tiles, except in the case of the Plastic Slate roofing; here 
the composition itself is of such a nature that it may be applied with 
a trowel directly to the walls or copings against which the finish is 
made, and being of an elastic and adhesive nature, no great amount 
of metal flashing is needed. 

Inspection. The supervision of roofing work of all kinds 
deserves the closest attention. Nothing is more unsatisfactory than 




to find leaks in the roof of a new building, and the time spent in 
securing a first-class job will be well spent. Slates and tiles are 
easily broken, and unless discovered and brought to notice at once, 
will probably be overlooked by the contractor. Composition roofs 
are easily slighted, and when finished give little indication of defects. 

The only safeguard is constant watchfulness, which is well 
repaid if the roofs prove satisfactory. 

Gutters and Conductors. The best material for metal con¬ 
ductors is copper, but galvanized iron and tin are used to some extent. 


140 













140 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


The usual form of a copper gutter is shown in Fig. 158, but it is often 
necessary that the face should be formed of mouldings to match or 
form part of a stone or wooden cornice. In this case, the gutter is 
formed behind the finished moulding. (Fig. 159.) The gutter shown 
in Fig. 158 is made of sheet copper, turned over an iron bar A, and 
moulded to form the trough, and made wide enough to lun well up 
on the roof boarding, under the slates or other roof covering. Bars 
of copper or galvanized iron are bolted to the outer bar, and nailed 

and soldered to the roof. These 
bars should be given a short twist, 
as shown, so that the wash of the 
roof will drip off into the gutter, 
and not follow the strap down and 
soil the face of the gutter. In the 
case of the lined gutter, Fig. 159, 
the outer edge of the metal is 
tacked to the wood or tucked under 
an iron bar previously secured. 

Standing gutters (Fig. 160) are 
sometimes used where they will 
not be objectionable by reason of 
holding back the snow, but are often a source of trouble. 

In a great many cases of city building, especially with flat roofs, 
it is necessary or convenient that the outer walls shall be carried up 
as a parapet, and the roof water taken care of inside of the building. 
In this case a “cant-board” is 
used, shown in Fig. 161. This 
consists of a board surface set in 
the angle of roof and wall, and 
graded to the desired outlets 
where conductors are placed in¬ 
side of the wall. 

Conductors. In the case of 
the inside conductors above re¬ 
ferred to, cast iron soil pipes may 
be used; and these, if carried down in a brick wall, should, if 
possible, be run in interior walls, and at any rate with not less 
than eight inches of wall between them and the outside air. 




Fig. 160. Standing Gutter on Roof. 


150 
















building supekintendence 


141 


The recess is often packed with some non-conducting material. 
Outside metal conductors are made of tin, zinc, galvanized iron, 
or copper, the latter being the most desirable and also most ex¬ 
pensive. Metal conductors should be made in some form which 
will permit expansion in case they should become frozen solid. A 
corrugated round pipe or an octagonal or square pipe is to be pre¬ 
ferred. Conductors are usually given an ornamental top of large 
or small proportions according to situation. 

The connection between the conductor and the gutter is usually 
made by a bent piece of pipe, sometimes a continuation of the con¬ 
ductor, and often a piece of lead pipe, 
shown in Fig. 162, called a gooseneck. 

The opening from the gutter to the 
conductor should be protected by a 
strainer to prevent leaves, chips, or 
other substances from choking up the 
pipe, and the lower end, if connected 
with a drain, should be properly 
trapped. 

The superintendence of gutters 
and conductors should cover the con¬ 
struction of the trough, if of wood to 
be lined, to see that it pitches in the 
right direction and to the required 
points. The weight of the metal 
should be examined, and the manner 
of securing both gutters and conductors be carefully noted. Tin 
or iron surfaces which are concealed should be well painted, and all 
soldering well and faithfully done. The ends and backs of metal 
gutters must be examined to see that there is a sufficient width 
of metal to turn up against the wall, or to lie up on the roof, eight 
to ten inches being as little as it will be safe to allow. All rubbish 
in the gutters must be removed, and all connections left tight and 
free from obstructions. 

Galvanized Iron Work, The use of galvanized iron for ex¬ 
terior moulded work and bay windows has of late years become an 
important factor in building construction. Especially is this true 
of modern fireproof buildings where it is desirable to use no wood in 



151 


















14^ 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


the exterior finish. Belts, cornices, pilasters, door and window finish, 
and, in fact, all the trimmings of a building, which in former times 
would have been made of stone or wood, are now, to a great extent, 

made of galvanized iron or, if not too 
costly, of copper. The structural 
treatment of galvanized iron and cop¬ 
per being about the same, it will be 
necessary to our purpose only to treat 
of the former^ remembering that for 
large surfaces galvanized iron is the 
stouter material. 

Bay Windows. Perhaps the 
greatest use of galvanized iron at pres¬ 
ent is found in the construction of bay 
windows. In this construction the es¬ 
sentials are lightness and strength, so 
that it is usual to construct a light 
framework of steel, upon which the 
metal finish is secured, as in Fig. 163. 
Cornices are run on steel or iron brack¬ 
ets secured to the brick wall or the 
steel frame, as may be found most available. These brackets are 




Fig. 163. Framing of Metal 
Bay Window. 


shaped to conform roughly to the 
outline of the cornice, and it is 
allowable to insert a reasonable 
amount of boarding to form a base 
for any broad washes of metal, as 
boarding thus placed, outside of the 
walls, and completely encased by 
metal, is not in any danger from 
fire. For heavy projecting cornices, 
the brackets should be made of 
steel angle irons securely built 
the steel skeleton. 

Tinned Doors and Shutters. Another use to which tin 
frequently put is the making of metal-covered doors for the fire pro¬ 
tection of exposed windows and other openings. Many city laws 
and insurance rules require that all windows within thirty feet of a 



Fig. 164. Fire Doors. 

into the wall, or bolted to it, or to 


is 


159 














































BUILDING SUPElilNTENDENCE 


143 


source of danger from fire shall be protected by metal-covered shut¬ 
ters of some kind, and a wooden shutter completely encased in tin 
has been found to be an effective protection. For protecting openings 
in party or division walls, the same kind of doors are used, one on 
each side of the wall, leaving an air space between of about the thick¬ 
ness of the wall, as in Fig. 164, and these doors are usually required 
to be set in rebated frames, and hung by various automatic devices 
of weights and fusible members, so that they will close at once if 
attacked by fire. 

The best construction of these doors consists of a frame made up 
of pine 1J inches in thickness with flush panels, covered with tin 
tacked on as described for roofing, but for shutters and small doors, 
two thicknesses of J-inch pine, nailed together and crossing each 
other, are used. As much care is necessary to preserve a tight 
interior for outdoor shutters as for a roof, as a small leak will soon 
rot out the pine core. The joints are all made by locking and tacking 
the tin, and no solder can be used, as the heat of a fire would melt 
it at once. 

Skylights. Another use of metal for exterior work is found in 
the framework of skylights. These, if large, are made up of light 



Fig. 165. Hip Skylight. 



steel angles or T-irons, and covered with sheet metal, sometimes with 
a lining in parts of terra-cotta blocks. If of ordinary size they will 
be formed up of heavy sheet metal, usually galvanized iron or copper, 
and in a variety of designs suited to various uses. The two principal 
forms of skylight are the hipped skylight, Fig. 165, and the gabled 
skylight, Fig. 166. All skylights should be provided with a ventilator 
of some sort and often a greater amount of circulation of air is obtained 
by building a vertical wall containing sashes or louvre blinds. 

Of construction similar to large skylights but without the glazing 
or louvres in the walls, are roof houses; which must often be con¬ 
structed to give access to roofs or to contain machinery. These, 


153 










144 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


if above forty feet from the sidewalk, will be required by many cities 
to be of fireproof construction and are usually made of T-irons with 
a terra-cotta filling, and covered with sheet metal. (Fig. 167.) A 
precaution which must be taken in regard to the construction is to 
be sure that the T-irons are set with their flange inside or on the 
opposite side from the metal covering, or the pounding down of the 

seams of the metal will be likely to 
start the terra cotta out of place. 
On account of this pounding down 
of the seams, it is often better that 
the blocks should be of solid terra 
The connection between these houses 
and the main roof must be taken care of as described for roof and 
wall flashings, due allowance always being made for expansion of 
the metals. In this connection, it may be well to note that zinc for 
flashings should never be used where it will come in contact with 
iron, lead, or copper, as this contact will produce voltaic action 
which will finally destroy the zinc. 

FRAMING AND FLOORING. 

Frame. The exterior wood framing of city buildings will in 
most cases be confined to roofs, since no exterior walls within the 
building limits of modern cities are allowed to be constructed of wood. 
Wooden roofs covered with slates or other fire-resisting materials are 
allowed, however, in many cities, up to a certain height above the 
sidewalk. The only difference which we shall find in this wooden 
construction, from the suburban house considered in Part I. will be, 
that usually the spaces to be covered are larger and the roofs must be 
consequently of heavier timber. 

Floors. The same thing will be true of floors, and, from the 
variety of uses to which the buildings will be put, from comparatively 
light buildings to heavy stores or warehouses, a great range of floor 
construction will be required. For brick dwellings, the floor con¬ 
struction will differ little from the wooden house already described, 
the principal difference being the greater spans, and consequently 
heavier timbers, and also the fact that the outside bearings are taken 
by the brick walls instead of wooden girts. The joists in this case 
should run onto the wall at least four inches and should be bevelled 


PLASTErR. 



METAL O" 


Fig. 167. Hollow-tile Wall. 

cotta and not hollow tiles. 


154 



































. 


' 


















f 






% 




■ 













































































































































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


145 


at the end, so that, in case of fire, the floors may fall without destroy¬ 
ing the wall. (Fig. 168.) The joists must be anchored to the walls 
about every five feet with iron anchors secured to the joist at the side, 
and low down, to allow the joist to 
fall out if burned. These ties should 
be continued across the building by 
tying the inner ends of the joists to¬ 
gether and putting an anchor in the 
opposite wall, in as nearly a direct 
line across the house as possible. All 
large timbers, such as girders, should 
have anchors and should rest on cast- 
iron wall plates. Partitions should 
have a stud set close against the brick 
wall and bolted to it, and all large 
openings, such as stair wells or skylights, should have headers 
hung to the trimmers by stirrup-irons or patent hangers, shown in 
Fig. 169. 

If there are openings in the brick walls which come so near to the 
bottom of the joists that an arch cannot be turned, a header should 

be cut in or a steel beam 
inserted in the wall. Joists 
are sometimes hung to the 
walls by hangers, and do 
not run into the wall at all; 
but while this preserves the 
full strength of the wall, it 
Fig. 169. joist Hangers. does no t make so good a tie 

and is not generally done. The wall plate of a brick dwelling 
will usually be made of a plank the thickness of the wall, and 
secured by f-irich bolts which are built into the wall, as in Fig. 170. 
These bolts should run at least twenty inches down into the wall, 
and have a large washer plate at their lower end. When the wall 
has been brought to the required height^ the plate is bored with holes 
to fit the bolts, and a nut and washer screwed on. Over the plate the 
rafters are notched, and the roof constructed as for a wooden house. 

Store and Office Floors. In the construction of stores, 
warehouses, or office buildings, with wooden floors, the use of parti- 




155 






















146 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


tions for carrying the floor should be avoided, and columns and 
girders substituted. The reason for this is that, under heavy loads, 
the studding will often spring enough to crack the plastering, and 
besides, the occupancy of this class of 
buildings by different tenants will require 
numerous changes in the partitions from 
time to time. The large girders and 
posts also offer greater resistance to the 
action of fire, and permit of fewer con¬ 
cealed spaces. Many city laws require 
the use of brick walls, trusses, or col¬ 
umns and girders for support, if floor 
spans exceed thirty feet, and this is a 
good rule to observe. 

In establishing a line of columns 
and girders, the columns should be 
spaced about twelve or fourteen feet apart for wooden girders, 
but can be brought up to twenty-five feet for the span of steel girders. 
If solid wooden posts are used, they will last better if bored from end 
to end through the center with a hole about an inch and a half, with 
a half-inch hole bored into the center at the top and bottom. This 
allows a circulation of air through the center of the post, and guards 
against dry rot, especially if the post is not thoroughly dry when set. 
This central boring should be done 
from one end , and, if it comes more 
than an inch out of center at either end, 
it will weaken the post and should be 
cause for rejection. 

All wooden posts carrying girders 
and posts above, should have an iron cap 
with side plates to receive the girders, 

Fig. 171, allowing the post above to be 
supported directly by the post below, 
and not to" stand on the girder. This 
must be done for two reasons. One reason is, if the girder ran 
over the top of the post and the post above were set upon it, the 
natural shrinkage of the girders would be multiplied by each 
succeeding floor, and in a building of four or five stories* 




156 

















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


147 



this might amount to two or three inches, so that the upper floor 
beams at their inner end would be that much lower than the outer 
ends which are supported by the rigid masonry. Another reason is, 
that the crushing strength of the girder 
in its longitudinal position is not so great 
as the post standing on end, and it might 
be unable to support the accumulated 
weight of several stories. This support 
was formerly obtained entirely by the 
use of cast-iron pintles, Fig. 172, which 
are cast with top and bottom plates to fit 
the posts, the weight being transmitted 
by the cross-shaped metal. This is an 
effective method, but has been super¬ 
seded by the more modern steel caps. 
The bearing of the girders should be 
at least five inches on either end, and 
a box hanger of some kind should be used to support the wall 
end of the girder, as shown in Fig. 173. 

Iron and Steel Supports. For large spans and heavy weights 
it will be often necessary to use iron or steel columns with wooden 
girders. If cast-iron columns are used, they should not be made with 
a shell less than three-quarters of an inch thick. This is necessary 
on account of the danger of an unequal 
thickness in the shell of the column. To 
obtain the hollow column, the casting 
must be made about a “core,” and 
although this core is accurately centered, 
there is danger of its being displaced by 
the pouring in of the molten iron, as, 
being of a lighter composition, it will 
have a tendency to “float.” This may 
result in an added thickness to one side 
of the shell of the column and a corresponding lack of metal on the 
opposite side. To guard against this defect, cast-iron columns 
should always be tested by boring a small hole on opposite sides, 
and if more than one-fourth of the thickness of shell is wanting in any 
column it should be rejected. The outer surface of cast iron should 



Fig. 173. Box Anchor on Wall. 


157 

































148 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


be smooth and clean, with sharp angles; and all projections, such 
as lugs, caps, or bases, should be closely examined to detect the pres¬ 
ence of cracks which may occur at these points. 

•f Cap and Base. The top and bottom of all cast-iron columns 
should be turned off in a lathe to insure a bearing at right angles 
to the axis, and plates should be used to increase the bearing. These 
plates are cast with a ring or with projections to hold the column 
in place against movement, and they should be planed to a perfectly 
even bearing. The cap must never be spread out as a casting, 
Fig. 174, but should carry up the line of the column itself, all orna¬ 
mentation requiring a great projection being cast separately and 
fastened on, as in Fig. 175. This allows the shaft of the column 
to run straight up to bear the weight of the column above, while the 



Fig. 174. Impi’oper Casting of Column. 



girder is borne by the projections cast upon the column. The dis¬ 
tance from the cap to the top of the column should be about four 
inches greater than the depth of the girder to allow room for bolting 
the columns together. 

With a wooden girder, the ends of the timber must be cut out 
to fit the diameter of the column (Fig. 176), and the girders must 
be tied across the cap by stout straps on each side. If steel beams 
are used, they can be tapped to the column plate or strapped together 
around the column. 

Pipe Columns. Heavy wrought-iron pipe is often used for 
columns, a cap and base being sometimes cast and screwed on by a 
thread; and a patented column formed by filling the pipe with 
cement, may be obtained ready fitted with cap and base. 


158 


















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


149 


Steel Columns and Girders, Where the spacing of cohimns 
is required to be increased beyond the safe bearing of wooden girders, 
steel girders may be used. These usually consist of one or more 
steel I-beams, and they may be used with cast-iron columns or with 
steel columns. With cast-iron columns, the same methods will 
suffice as in the use of wooden girders, but with the use of steel columns 
a new method of construction 
arises, which it will be better to 
consider later in connection with 
steel framing. It may be properly 
said here, however, that the use of 
steel girders and steel columns, 
even if the floor timbers are of 
wood, is to be recommended for 
high buildings or for buildings 
which are subjected to the jar of 
machinery; the reason for this 
being in the greater rigidity which is 
possible in the girder and column 
connections, and the greater ease 
with which this construction can be braced. 

Floor Beams. The use of wood or steel for girders will require 
different methods of construction. If wooden girders are used they 



Fig. 176. Seating of Girder on 
Column. 




Fig. 178. Spiking of Joists. 


may be set wholly or partially below the floor timbers, or flush with 
them. If there are no objections to dropping the girder below, 
this is the simplest and strongest construction. In this case, the 
floor beams should be sized down on the girders to maintain a per- 


159 
































150 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


fectly level floor line, and a full bearing should be obtained for each 
timber. Where the girders are large the timbers may be brought 
to butt against each other upon the girder; and they should be 
secured end to end by iron dogs which turn down into each timber. 
(Fig. 177.) For small girders and light timbers, it will be better to 
let the timbers lap close and be spiked to each other, as in Fig. 178. 

When the girders are near together, and the timbers long enough 
to span two divisions, a rigid floor may be obtained by “ breaking 
joints” with the floor timbers every five or six feet. 

Flush Framing. If the girder is to be framed flush with the 
timbers, the use of stirrup irons or patent hangers is recommended, 

as preserving the full strength of 
the girder. In this case the tim¬ 
bers should be brought as nearly 
opposite as possible, and iron 
dogs long enough to reach over 
the girder and drive down into 
opposite timbers should be used. 
(Fig. 179.) . 

If the girder is deeper than 
the floor timbers it may be set 
flush on top, and smaller pieces of hard pine or an angle iron may 
be bolted to the lower part to receive the floor timbers, as shown 
in Fig. 180. 

Crowning. All floor timbers having a span of more than six¬ 
teen feet should be crowned, that is, the top of the joist is cut to the 
shape of an arc of a circle, having a 
rise of one-quarter inch to every six¬ 
teen feet of span. This is necessary 
to allow for the ordinary sag of the 
timber, so that a level floor may result. 

Steel Girders. With the use 
of steel girders new considerations 
will arise. If a single beam is set entirely below the floor timbers, 
it will give a better bearing if the timbers lap and spike to each other. 
With two or more beams, the timbers may be brought end to end 
as on the heavy wooden girder. If the steel girder is set flush with 
the beams, they may be cut so as to run into the trough formed by 



Fig. 179. Hanging of Joists. 


FHili 

rr 

i iff 





Fig. 180. Wooden Girder and 
Joists. 


160 













BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE • 151 


the flanges of the beam, but should be supported by stirrup-irons 
or hangers, Fig. 181, as the sloping flange of the steel beam does 
not afford a good bearing. If the steel beam is deeper than the 
floor timbers, a common method is to bolt a 
timber to each side of the beam for a bear¬ 
ing; and of course an angle bar can be 
used in the same manner. (Fig. 182.) In 
any case, the floor beam should be fastened 
so that there is no danger of slipping out of 
the hanger. Most of the patent hangers have a lug, or bolt, to 
secure the timber in place, and where timbers come opposite, com¬ 
mon iron dogs turning down into each timber may be used. 

Slow Burning and Mill Construction. The use of the 
methods of heavy timbering just described, with floors of matched 
or splined plank, and with no wood partitions or furrings enclosing 
hollow spaces, constitutes what is generally termed slow-burning 

construction. To obtain the 
best results from this method 
of construction, wooden gird¬ 
ers should always be set 
flush with the floor timbers 
on top, as the dropped gird¬ 
er with the space above will 
permit flames to lap around the timber and it will be more quickly 
consumed than if it is flush with the rest of the floor beams. Greater 
protection is obtained by protecting the wood with plaster on metal 
laths, leaving no air spaces between the plaster and the wood. 

nill Construction, as its name denotes, should properly belong 
to the particular methods of construction which have been devised 
for resistance of fire, and the sustaining of the loads and shocks of 
machinery, to which manufacturing buildings are particularly sub¬ 
jected. This requires primarily the disposition of the timber and 
plank in solid masses exposing the least number of corners to the 
action of fire, of separating the floors by fireproof stops, and auto¬ 
matic arrangements of closing hatchways or elevator openings, and 
of enclosing stairways in incombustible partitions. 

The typical construction employed for the mills of New Eng¬ 
land, and the only form acceptable to the insurance companies of 



Fig. 182. Connection of Wooden Joists and 
Steel Girder. 



Fig. 181. Stirrup Iron and 
Steel Girder. 


161 

















.52 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


that section, consists of posts at least 10 X 10 inches, spaced about 
eight feet apart in the length of the mill and twenty-four or twenty-five 
feet across. Instead of a line of girders running lengthwise over 
the line of posts, the floor beams are laid across the mill on the 
tops of the posts. These beams are usually 12 X 14 inches, or 
two pieces of 6 X 14 inches, bolted together with an air space be¬ 
tween. The wall end of these timbers should rest on iron plates 
and the ends be bevelled off and secured 
only at the bottom, so that they may fall out 
easily if burned, and not pull down the wall. 
(Fig. 183.) These timbers are supported 
by iron post caps or pintles, as already de¬ 
scribed. The flooring consists of a layer of 
three-inch planks, not more than ten inches 
wide, splined together and blind-nailed; 
and it should be long enough to span two 
spaces, breaking joints every four or five 

Fig. 183. Effect of not bevel- feet. All of this construction is usually of 
ling ends of Joists. # # J 

Georgia pine. 

The upper floor is generally made of hardwood such as maple 
or birch, and this is laid with square edges over two or three thick¬ 
nesses of paper, each layer being mopped with tar, asphalt, or similar 
material; or sometimes a layer of plaster is spread between the 
upper and under floors. 

This construction may be adapted to the use of mercantile 
or office buildings, but the general requirements of this class of 
buildings will not admit of the posts occurring so often as every eight 
feet. This necessitates the use of a girder and intermediate beams. 
If these beams are spaced four or five feet apart, it will permit the use 
of two-inch plank which may be tongued instead of splined. With this 
increased spacing of the posts, it will be necessary to use iron or steel! 
posts for a building four or more stories in height; and if the posts 
are more than fourteen feet apart, it will be cheaper and better to use 
steel beams for girders. In this case, all weight-bearing metal 
must be protected by at least an inch of plaster or other fireproof 
material. 

Partitions. Where slow burning or mill construction is used 
for the floors of a building, the partitions should be made of solid 



162 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


153 


plank plastered on both sides on metal lathing, or else of light steel 
framing with metal lath, and plaster. 

Roofs. The same methods of framing may be employed for 
the roofs as for the floors, but lighter timbers can be used, set to the 
required pitch, with a tar and gravel or metal roof. Steep pitched 
roofs may also be constructed in the same way, trussing the timbers 
if the span requires it. 

Supervision. The supervision of the framing of floors of 
brick buildings will call for constant vigilance on the part of the 
superintendent, as it is not only necessary to follow closely the work 
of the carpenters, but the fact that the mason-work is being carried 
along at the same time, by a different set of workmen, will necessitate 
a great deal of forethought in order to bring the different parts 
together at the proper time. 

The anchoring of floors properly, and at the proper time, will 
require constant attention, and the setting of plates, the building- 
in of bolts and hangers, and the leveling-up of floors and walls to 
their relative positions, will require harmonious action between the 
mason and the carpenter. 

In heavy framing, careful watching will be necessary, to see 
that proper connections are made between post, girders and floor 
beams, and that all necessary ties, straps and bolts are set and 
tightened. 

If trusses occur, they should be strained up tightly when built 
and kept tightly strained as long as there are any workmen remain¬ 
ing at the building, as the shrinkage of the timbers will often loosen 
the joints and allow sagging to occur. 

Flooring. As soon as the floor timbers are in place, it is gen¬ 
erally the custom to lay down a rough floor. This makes a platform 
upon which subsequent operations are carried on and also forms 
the foundation for the upper or finished floor. The character of 
this rough lining floor will depend upon the nature of the floor con¬ 
struction. If the floors are of slow-burning or mill construction 
with the beams far apart, plank must be used of varying thickness 
according to the spacing of the beams. For a spacing of four or five 
feet, 2-inch plank may be used, but from five to eight feet of space 
will require 3-inch plank. This planking should be matched or 
splined and securely nailed to every bearing, and it will add to the 


163 



154 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


rigidity of the building if laid diagonally, besides giving an even 
surface upon which to lay the finished floor. For the under floors 
of dwellings or other buildings of ordinary light construction, an 
under floor of f-inch hemlock or pine is generally used without 
matching. The boards should be mill-planed to an even thickness 
and as narrow as can be readily obtained. The under flooring should 
be securely nailed to every bearing, and should be laid close to the 
exterior walls, covering the floor surface completely with no large 
holes or wide crevices. 

Upper Floors. The laying of upper floors should be delayed 
until the finish of the rooms has been completed, up to the hanging 
of the doors. For floors that are to be carpeted, spruce or pine 
is generally used, and this may be laid without matching. For 
floors not carpeted, hardwood flooring should be used, and the 
boards should, be sawed into narrow widths and matched and blind- 
nailed. 

For floors of kitchens, offices or other places where much wear 
will come, and where the expense of oak or other fine woods is not 
desirable, floors of rift Georgia pine may well be used. Birch and 
maple also make a good floor and have good wearing qualities. 
For parlors, halls, and for parquetry flooring, oak is used to a great 
extent, either by itself or in connection with other fancy woods. All 
hardwood flooring should be quarter-sawed. The usual thickness 
of flooring stock is f-inch, but for stores, factories, or public buildings, 
lj-inch or 1^-inch stock should be used. 

Stock. Spruce and pine floorings are carried in two grades— 
first and second quality. First quality is free from knots, while 
second quality will have small and tight knots. 

Hard pine flooring is rated as rift, or “quarter-sawed,” first and 
second clear, and star. Only rift hard pine should be used for a 
good floor, as “slash” boards will split and sliver. Oak flooring 
should always be quarter-sawed, and this as well as all hard woods 
should be used in narrow widths, 2\ inches being as wide as should 
be used for first-class work. First-class flooring is usually grooved 
on the under side to lie close to the under floor and should be matched 
and blind-nailed for good work. For offices or factories, square- 
edged boards will wear better and admit of renewal more easily than 
matched flooring. Floors laid diagonally or across the under floor- 


164 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


155 



Fig. 184. Old Floor Prepared for Tiling. 


ing will lie smoother and remain closer, than if laid the same way as 
the under floor. If the added stiffness is desired for mill floors, 
and it is not convenient to lay the floor diagonally, a degree of stiff¬ 
ness may be gained by laying the floor square and nailing it in diag¬ 
onal rows. 

Paper and Deafening. Between the upper and under floors, 
paper should be laid, and a deafening of plaster, quilt or mineral 
wood may be used. For mill or factory floors, two or three thick¬ 
nesses of paper should be used, mopped with tar or asphalt. 

Tiling and Mosaic. Where tiling or mosaic is used for the 
upper floor in wooden construction, special preparation will be 

needed to obtain a thick bed __ 

of concrete or bricks under 
the tiles. To do this the 
rough floor must be let down 
between the timbers, and sup¬ 
ported by strips nailed to the 
sides of the floor beams, as 

shown in Fig. 184. A bed of at least 4 inches should be provided, 
and the beams should be cut off to a bevel on top as shown. Even 

then there is a tendency for the 
tiles or mosaic to develop a crack 
over the beams, and so metal lath¬ 
ing is often used to prevent the 
concrete bed from cracking. This 
preparation is necessary for old 
floors which are to be tiled, or 
where the tile floor covers only a 
portion of a new floor, but when 
the whole of a new floor is to be 
covered with tiles, and there is 
nothing to prevent, it will be better 
to set the floor timbers enough 
below the finished level to obtain 
Narrow boards should be used laid 



Fig. 185. Floor and Wall Tiles. 


the same result. (Fig. 185.) 

|-irich open to allow for swelling. 

To prevent the moisture in the concrete from being absorbed 
too quickly by the boarding, and to guard against dripping, two 


165 


























156 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


thicknesses of tarred paper may be spread over the whole surface 
before the bed is laid, and the use of corrugated metal lathing is 
sometimes advisable. The preparation of wooden walls for tiling 
is more simple. Here it is only necessary to provide a firm and 
continuous sheet of plaster upon which the tiles are bedded. This 
may be done by cutting in between the studs, horizontal pieces two 
inches by the width of the studding and about a foot apart, upon 
which metal lathing is nailed; and a rough bed of cement mortar is 
spread upon this, allowing room for the proper bedding of the tiles. 
(Fig. 185.) Hair should be used in the cement mortar on wire 
lathing. 

Tiling. Tiles of various patterns and materials are used to a 
large extent for floors and walls of bathrooms, corridors and counting 
rooms. For fireplaces, and walls and floors of bathrooms, where 
the tiles are not subjected to hard wear, a plain glazed tile makes 
a clean and satisfactory job, but where much wear will come, the 
hard, vitreous, unglazed tiles will make a better wearing surface. 

The foundation for tiles should be prepared from the best Port¬ 
land cement, and should be perfectly level, and allowed to thoroughly 
harden before the tiles are laid. The foundation for both floor and 
wall tiles should be thoroughly brushed, to remove all dust and 
other foreign substance, and then well wet before applying the cement 
bedding. Portland cement should be used for setting floor or wall 
tiles, and for grouting the floors; and the best Keene’s cement for 
filling the joints in wall tiling. Clean sharp sand well screened 
should be used in equal parts with the cement for floors, and with 
two parts sand to one of cement for walls. The tiles must be thor¬ 
oughly soaked in water before setting. 

Floor tiles are set by being firmly pressed into the mortar bed 
and then tamped until perfectly level. When the bed is sufficiently 
set, the joints are grouted with pure cement and cleaned off with 
sawdust or fine shavings. 

Wall tiles are set by two methods called “floating” and “butter¬ 
ing.” In floating the tiles, a portion of the bed is spread on the 
wall, and the tile placed in position and tamped until firmly united. 
Buttering consists of spreading the mortar on the back of each tile, 
which is then placed against the prepared wall and tapped gently 
until it is united with the bed. When the tiles are all set, by either 


166 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


157 


process, the joints are carefully washed out and filled with Keene’s 
cement. When fixtures are to be secured to the walls, as for plumbing 
etc., a wood piece should be secured to the wall, flush with the rough 
bed, and the tiles laid over it, to be bored for the fastenings. 

Floor Finish. For halls and corridors, mosaic, tile, orterrazza 
floors are to be preferred, but for offices, nothing is better than a 
wooden floor. Rift hard pine, birch, maple, or oak make good 
wearing floors, and when laid on sleepers securely bedded in the 
concrete, with no chance for the air to get beneath the floor, are in 
little danger of being consumed by fire. Wooden floors should be 
matched and tightly laid, and treated with as little oil or inflammable 
varnish as possible, depending upon constant care, for preservation, 
rather than a great amount of finishing. 

Counters. For banking rooms and corporation offices, counters 
of greater or less extent and elaboration will be required. These 
are usually made of wood, but may be constructed of other materials, 
a wooden top being always preferred. The use of enameled bricks 
or tiles for the base of the counters with a wooden top makes a solid 
structure, while polished marble may be used of almost any degree of 
expense. 

Grille Work, An important feature of a modern building 
is the grille work made of various metals and used for protection, 
decoration, or effect to a great extent. For exterior ornament or 
protection, grilles will be found 
principally in door or window 
openings, and in this applica¬ 
tion, wrought-iron grilles are 
generally used. Window 
grilles are generally set in the 
depth of the stone or brick 
jamb of the window, as in Fig. 186, but are sometimes put over the 
opening on the outside face of the wall. This is usual if the window 
is small. (Fig. 187.) The fastenings of grilles should be secure 
and lasting; and they should in general be set in a rim of iron 
with hinges and locks, so as to allow easy access for cleaning the 
windows. (Fig. 188). 

Door grilles are sometimes glazed on the back with plate glass, 
so as to form a weatherproof door having the effect of the grille, 


• • i 


grille .s 

Fig. 186. Usual Position of Grille. 


m 


167 














158 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


and when this is to be done, care must be taken to bed the glass care¬ 
fully, as the expansion and the jar of closing are likely to crack the 
glass. 

The interior use of grilles will be found chiefly in the protection 
of elevators or lifts, and the exclusion of the public from the working 
portions of offices and banks. Elevator grilles are generally made of 
wrought iron, and they should be at least 7 feet 6 inches high on the 
sides and carried from floor to ceiling in front of the doors of the car; 

and all portions within easy reach of 
the public, where there is danger that 
the hand might pass through, to be 
injured by the moving parts of the 
elevator or counterweight, should be 
of a fine pattern or protected by fine 
netting. The main support of the ele¬ 
vator grilles will be found in the corner 
posts which support the elevators, or the 



Fig. 18?. Grille Outside of Window. 



stairs which often enclose them on three sides, and the pattern of 
the grille work should be stout enough to stand rigid between these 
supports. Wrought-iron grille work of all kinds should be carefully 
inspected to see that the scrolls are well turned, that welding or 
riveting is neatly done, and that the whole section is tightly put to¬ 
gether. Cast-iron patterns must be inspected for smoothness and 
clearness of the ornamental parts, and an even thickness of metal 
should be required for all similar parts. 

The counter and office grilles are often made of thin steel, bent 
into various patterns and riveted together, and this construction 
is also used for elevator cars where lightness is a valuable feature. 


168 























































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


159 


These grilles are finished by plating with copper, bronze, nickel, or 
other metal, and can be given almost any desired tone. 

While these grilles do not compare in appearance with wrought- 
iron grilles, they are less expensive, and quickly made, and may be 
readily obtained of the manufacturers in a variety of stock patterns. 

Fireproof Vaults. All banking and large commercial offices 
require a fireproof vault of some sort, for the preservation of valuable 
records as well as money. 

These vaults in a build¬ 
ing of ordinary construc¬ 
tion are easily made of 
bricks and steel beams. 

The vault, in principle, 
consists of a thick wall 
of bricks with proper air¬ 
space and covering, en¬ 
closing a space of greater 
or less extent, access to 
which is given by a 
double set of doors, sep¬ 
arated by the width of the wall, at least, and securely fastened from 
without. To withstand the effect of a conflagration, the walls 

should be built with an inner wall 
of eight inches of brick; then an 
air space of four inches and an 
outer wall of at least eight inches 
of brick, with both walls tied to¬ 
gether across the air space, which 
should be ventilated top and bottom. 
This gives a wall twenty inches in 
thickness and allows a door to be 
made with the outer valve in one leaf 
and an inner door in two parts, these 
parts opening in a vestibule formed 
in the thickness of the wall. (Fig. 
189.) The top must be covered with bricks laid on iron bars or 
beams, and must be at least twenty inches thick to withstand the 
heat and the falling of beams or masonry. (Fig. 190.) 



Fig. 190. Top of Fireproof Vault. 



169 





















160 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Vaults of this construction are fireproof but not burglar proof, 
the latter requisite being obtained by a lining of chilled steel or a 
separate burglar proof safe set within the brick vault. Vaults have 
also been made burglar proof by constructing them of concrete, in 
which are embedded old iron or steel bars or rods, to an extent that 
it would require a long time to effect an entrance of sufficient size 
to extract any part of the contents. Copper wires are sometimes 
laid in concrete at intervals of three inches or less, connected with a 
battery which will ring an alarm bell if the wires are tampered with. 

Store Windows. The modern desire to expose as much 
plate glass as possible in store windows has led to the development of 

a special construction for these win¬ 
dows, with the object of reducing 
the necessary supports of the glass 
to a minimum. For ordinary store 
windows, where the lights are not 
more than 6 feet wide, the bars 
may be made of a common T-bar 
covered by a half round of nickel- 
plated brass over a wooden form, 
A, Fig. 191, the glass being set from 
the inside, and held in by pins and 

Sometimes a half-round bar is screwed to a web piece of iron, 
and the outside painted or covered with nickeled brass, as at B, Fig. 
191. Another form giving greater 
strength of web is shown at C. 

For larger lights, a special 
construction is required, giving 
greater strength; and this is often 
clone by means of a special casting 
exposed and ornamented on the 
front, but otherwise concealed in 
the wood finish, as at A, Fig. 192. 

2\ inches wide by 3 inches deep, depending upon the size of the glass, 
and the glass may be set either from the outside or the inside, and 
held in place by moulded stops which may be made of metal on the 
outside, if desired. If transoms are used, they may be of the same 



Fig. 192. Sash Bars. 

These castings should be about 



S. C. 

Fig. 191. Sash Bars. 


putty or wooden stop-beads. 


170 




















A - 


















STREET FRONT OF RESIDENCE AT CORONADO BEACH, SAN DIEGO, CAL. 

Pond & Pond, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 

Wide Boards in Lower Story; Plaster Above; Shingle Roofs. Cost, about $10,000. Built in 1905. For Plans, See Page 186 











































GARDEN FRONT, FACING THE BAY, OF RESIDENCE AT CORONADO BEACH, CAL. 

Pond & Pond, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 















































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


161 


section as any of the bars, or a more ornamental form may be given, 
as B, Fig. 192. 

The top of the window will usually have the same section as 
the sides, and the sill will depend upon the character of the show 
window and whether the sash comes to the floor or not. If a bulk¬ 
head is required with cellar lights under it, a section similar to Fig. 
193 is often employed. To pre¬ 
vent the windows from becoming 
frosty in cold weather, ventilating 
openings, through which the con¬ 
densation also may drain out, are 
provided, and a trough to connect 
with these openings. Basement 
sashes should be provided with 
wooden sills fitted over a lip in 
the iron or concrete of sidewalk, 
or bedded tight if the sidewalk is 
of stone or brick. 

The corners of store windows 
may be treated by adapting any 
form of bar to the angle, and 
where it is of advantage to show 
no bar at all, the two sheets of glass 
coming together at an angle may 
be made to support each other by clamping them together with no 
dividing bar. Several patented forms of connection may be used 
for this, as well as for the dividing bars. In setting large lights of 
plate glass, a backing of rubber or leather should be used in place 
of the usual back-puttying. 

Mail Chutes. For the convenience of the occupants of 
offices above the first floor of any building, the system of mailing 
letters by means of a specially constructed chute connected with 
the mail box at the bottom, should be adopted, and location and 
preparation made for it during the construction. This system, 
which is patented, must be installed subject to the approval of the 
local postmaster, and all the apparatus, when erected and accepted 
by the Post Office department, passes under the care and control 
of the Government, by which the locks and boxes are authorized. 



Fig. 193. Sill of Store Sash. 


171 









162 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


IP 

1: 

1 

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W g 


THIMBLE.. 



The boxes are of various sizes and patterns, and are furnished by 
the makers of the chutes. The chutes are required to be in remov¬ 
able sections, exposed to view and easily accessible, and they may 
be run only in the public hall or corridors of a building. The chute 
must be made of metal with a plate glass front, clearly marked with 
the insignia of the department, and when installed becomes technic¬ 
ally a part of the government mail box below. 

The requirements for support of the chutes are a continuous 
vertical surface 10^ inches or more in width, carried from the box 
below to a point not less than 4 feet 6 inches above the top of the 
highest floor to be supplied. In front of this vertical run must be 

set the iron thimbles pro¬ 
vided by the makers, 3f 
inches by 9 inches, the 
whole absolutely plumb, 
with no bends or offsets 
anywhere. 

For wooden buildings 
a flat casing of wood may 
be used, or marble or other costly material may be substituted 
wholly or in part. This construction is generally used where the 
chute runs against a wall, as in Fig. 194. 'Where the chute runs 
down beside an elevator 

grille, or in other places ELEVATOR v5CRE.EK^ 

where a solid back would 
be objectionable, two 
“square root” angle irons 
are generally used and 
turned so as to give an 
even backing, Fig. 195, the 

thimble in all cases being the same, and the angle irons being 
secured to the floor beams or other rigid support. 

This preparation may be made a part of the building contract or 
of the mail chute contract, but will have to be done to the satisfaction 
and acceptance of the makers of the chutes and of the local Post 
Office department. 


Fig. 194. Backing of Mail Chute against Wall. 



Fig. 195. Backing of Mail Chute against Grille. 


172 











BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


163 


FIREPROOF BUILDING. 

The most modern feature of city building construction is the 
erection of the high business blocks which form the main part of the 
commercial districts of all cities. Here a variety of problems present 
themselves, more or less complicated according to the nature of site 
and surroundings, of size and usage. 

In the first place, the value of the land which the proposed build¬ 
ing will occupy must be considered. Real estate in the heart of our 
large cities attains almost fabulous value, and the first consideration 
which the owner will require, will be the maximum of rentable area 
within the walls of his building. This of itself will force us to adopt 
a system of construction which will permit us to erect the building 
with the thinnest possible walls that safety and the building laws 
will allow, and the same consideration of rent will force us to build 
as high as possible. From this tendency has arisen the modern 
“sky scraper,” a construction consisting of a steel skeleton covered 
with masonry, simply as a protection for the steel, and for the con¬ 
tents of the building, but having no weight-bearing value of itself. 
The floors and walls are supported wholly by the steel frame, which 
is carried usually on isolated supports far below the sidewalk. This 
is the common form of high building and is known as skeleton con¬ 
struction. 

Sometimes the exterior walls are made strong enough to be 
self supporting, the steel frame carrying only the floor loads, but 
in this case there is danger of unequal settlement between the frame 
and the enclosing walls, whereas if the whole of the load is carried 
by the steel frame, the footings can be proportioned so as to give 
equal settlements. In doing this, it is customary to use only the 
dead load,— i.e., the weight of the building material—in establishing 
the proportions of the footings, for if the live load of people and 
merchandise were to be included, the interior footings would have 
a much higher percentage of live load than the exterior footings, and 
as the live load is not constant, it would be impossible for the building 
to settle uniformly. This has been proved by the present condition 
of existing buildings which have been erected upon a compressible 
soil, the tendency being for the interior footings, which are subjected 
only intermittently to their full live load, to settle less than the exterior 
footings where the dead load of the walls is constant, unless dae 


173 




164 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


allowance is made. Some authorities allow 25 per cent of the live 
load in addition to the dead load upon the footings, but difference 
in soil will require especial allowances. The essential point in any 
foundation is not to overload the soil, so as to cause excessive settle¬ 
ment, and to so distribute the loads that the settlement shall 
be uniform. 

Height ol Buildings. As the owner will naturally desire 
to obtain as many floors as possible, it will be necessary to consult, 
first of all, the building laws of the city in. which the building is 
erected, to determine the height to which our building may be carried. 
This determined, the number of floors must be decided. As the 
lower floors are less likely to be subdivided than the others, they 
must be given a height which will be in proportion to the probable 
size of the rooms, so that the height of the lower stories must be added 
together, and the sum, with the addition of the thickness of the 
floors, must be taken from the whole height of the building before 
we can establish a unit of height for the rest of the stories. 

The Building Site. While these matters are under consid¬ 
eration by the owner, an examination of the proposed site will be 
profitable, to gain necessary information in regard to party walls 
and the condition of adjoining property. The nature of the soil, 
the location of sewers and other underground works, will be factors 
in the proposed construction, and all data relating to these matters 
must be recorded and carefully preserved. 

Preliminary Work. As soon as the instructions of the owner, 
or the recommendations of the architect, have been definitely adopted, 
the construction of the building will be laid out. As the problem 
will resolve itself into the disposition of a greater or less number 
of "isolated points of support, instead of the ordinary continuity of 
walls, it will be necessary to study the construction at the same time 
with the laying out of the offices, in order to bring the necessary 
vertical supports as much out of the way as possible. Another 
consideration will be the thickness of the floors. As the number 
of floors is sure to be considerable, it will readily be seen that an 
excessive thickness will result in considerable loss of height; and. 
if the thickness of each floor can be kept down to a reasonable rate, 
it may be the means of obtaining a story more for rentable purposeSy 
which is a matter worthy of consideration. 


174 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


165 


These factors, which do not enter so strongly into the problems 
which we have previously considered, must have careful consideration 
in constructing mercantile buildings of the class which we have now 
before us; and upon their skillful employment will depend the suc¬ 
cess of the enterprise. 

In the bringing together of these elements to form a whole 
composition, certain external elements must be considered. Among 
these are ease of access, the maximum of light, rentable area, ease of 
rearrangement to suit tenants, and the minimum of cost. Ease of 
access will require that the elevators and stairs shall be placed in 
direct and obvious connection with the entrances and as nearly as 
possible at the level of the sidewalk, readily seen on entering the 
building or on leaving the offices to which they give access. The 
position of the elevators will be of more importance than the stairs, 
as the latter will be little used in high buildings. To obtain the best 
light possible it will be well to provide that the areas (which will be 
a necessity in a building in the interior of a block or in a wide building 
on a corner) shall have a general direction north and south. These 
areas should not be narrower than six feet and should contain win¬ 
dows as large and as near the ceiling as possible, and the rooms 
should be as nearly rectangular as may be, thus avoiding dark 
corners. 

The structural conditions will enter more or less into the arrange¬ 
ment of the offices, as already suggested, and to this must be added 
ease of adjustment to the needs of the average tenant. The unit of 
size and arrangement of the offices should be such that a tenant who 
wants a single office may have one of average size, or a tenant who 
wishes, may have the whole floor, except the minimum of space 
necessary for toilet rooms, elevators and stairs. 

The Structure. When the character of the building and 
the general divisions of the floor space have been established, the 
location and design of the columns, the kind of wall and floor con¬ 
struction, and the size and spacing of floor beams and girders must 
be determined. The location of the columns and girders will be 
determined by the size and shape of the floors, the position of present 
or future partitions, the floor loads, and other considerations which 
arise with different locations and uses. In general, the most econom¬ 
ical spacing of columns and girders will vary from 14 feet to 16 feet. 


175 



166 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


The spacing of the floor beams will depend upon the system of floor 
construction used. . 

Columns. The columns used in skeleton construction are 
generally made up of a combination of the standard shapes of steel 
bars. One of the commonest forms of steel column is the Z-bar 
column, shown in Fig. 196. This column is made by bolting to¬ 
gether four standard Z-bars with reinforcing plates, the bars and 
plates increasing in size and thickness as the 
loads to be supported increase. The column 
shown in Fig. 196 is of the type known as 
“closed columns’’ and can be used only where 
there is no necessity for repainting the steel, 
as only the outside surfaces are accessible. 
The open form of column, Fig. 197, is more 
generally used. Other forms of steel columns 
are formed from standard beams, Fig. 198, or 
angles, Fig. 199. As these columns will be 
a heavy load in most cases, bases must be used 



Fig. 196. Closed Z-bar 
Column. 


from channels and 
required to support 


U" 

J”L 

Fig. 197. Open Z-bar 
Column. 



Fig. 198. Steel Beam Fig. 199. Channel and 

Column. Angle Column. 


which will distribute the weight over a surface large enough to sus¬ 
tain the load. This may be done by the use of a cast-iron base. 
Fig. 200, or a base built up of steel, Fig. 201. 

The selection of a particular form of column section will depend 
upon varying conditions, being generally determined by the amount 
of load and the way in which the floor beams come to the column. 
The shape and size desired for the finished column, the thickness 
and detail of enclosing piers, and the availability of certain shapes, 
are also factors. 

Erection. To save time and labor, it is customary to run the 
columns in lengths of two stories each. This takes more metal, 


176 







BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


167 


but the gain in time and labor will generally offset it. The splicing 
of columns must be made with a perfect bearing of the metal, so that 
the load is transmitted from column to column, the splice-plate 
giving the full strength against lateral movement. (Fig. 202.) 

In this connection attention should be called to the importance 
of starting and maintaining the columns perfectly plumb and 




always in line. To do this, it is necessary that the bases should be 
set absolutely level, as the slightest variation at this point will increase 
as the work is carried to a height. For this reason bases should never 
be set by means of an ordinary 
mason’s level, but an engineer’s 
level should be employed to insure 
accuracy. If this is done, and the 
end sections of the columns are 
milled off properly, there is no 
reason why perfectly plumb work 
should not be maintained, per¬ 
mitting the spliced joints of the 
columns to bear perfectly upon each 
other without the use of thin 
“shims,” which should not be 
allowed. 

When splices are made at 
the building, the superintendent 

should see that the riveted surfaces are painted before being put 
together, and that a sufficient number of bolts are used to hold the 
pieces together rigidly while being riveted. 






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Fig. 202. Splicing of Steel Column. 


177 




















































168 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


The use of splice-plates for connecting columns is to be preferred 
to a connection of plate and angles; and if any part of the column 
section projects beyond the column section below, it should not be 
left unsupported, but should be given a bearing on a filling plate 
riveted to the lower column. The rivet holes in the column and 
splice-plate should fit perfectly so that “drifting,” i.e., straining the 
pieces together by means of a drift-pin, need not be resorted to; 
neither should heavy mauls be used to bring the members into posi¬ 
tion, but wooden mallets only. The finished, rivet head should be 
clean and smooth without cracks or flaws, and the two heads should 
be concentric with the axis of the rivet. All rivets should be examined 
to see that they are tight and well formed. 

Loose rivets are often tightened by simply calking around the head 
with a calking tool. This should be watched for and never be allowed 
to pass, as a rivet so treated possesses no working strength, being tight¬ 
ened simply by the contact of a thin edge against the steel members. 

Grillage. The great loads which are concentrated at the 
bottom of the steel columns of a high burlding, will, in general, require 

a different treatment, to secure a 
firm foundation, from the stepped- 
up foundations of stone or con¬ 
crete which we have already 
considered, as in Fig. 203. Of 
course it would be possible to ex¬ 
tend the area of the succeeding 
steps of an ordinary pier founda¬ 
tion until it covered a sufficient 
footing; but this would in many 
cases be at a great expense and 
loss of room—two important fac¬ 
tors in city buildings. To over¬ 
come this, and to provide ade¬ 
quate foundation within reasonable limits of depth and material, the 
use of steel beams for foundations has become general. This use 
of beams is known as grillage, and may be used for isolated bear¬ 
ings or for the bearing of continuous walls. 

Foundations of this sort are usually prepared by laying down a bed 
of concrete from four inches to twelve inches in depth, and laying 



Fig. 2 


Stone Footing and Base. 


178 
























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


169 


upon this a series of steel beams. If a wall foundation, these beams 
are continued at a spacing varying from six to twenty-four inches along 


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SCAM5, 


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Fig. 204. Grillage under Wall. 


the wall, as in Fig. 204. If a column or pier foundation, the concrete 


put down in a square, of an 


area 



1111:111 


f 


and beams will be similarly 
sufficient to sustain the esti¬ 
mated load, and these may 
be crossed by another or 
several tiers of beams laid 
at right angles, each series 
covering less and less of width 
until the footing is brought to 
the desired width to receive 
the base of the columns. (Fig. 

205.) The distance apart of 
the beams will vary according 
to their length and the load 
to be borne, but should be at 
least enough to allow of filling 
and properly tamping the con¬ 
crete between the beams. 

The whole is then finished 
flush with a bed of concrete. 

Sometimes the nature of the 
soil and the closeness of the 
supports will make it advisa¬ 
ble to cover the whole area of 
the building with a thick bed 

of concrete, upon wdiich the footings of beams or stone may be laid. 
Before laying the steel beams for grillage, they should be cleaned 



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Fig. 205. Grillage under Column. 


179 






































































































170 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


and coated with asphalt; and they should be examined before cov¬ 
ering with concrete, and all defects found in the coating thoroughly 
covered. 

Timber is sometimes used as a grillage, in connection with piling, 
by bolting a series of timbers to the tops of the piles, this timber 
crossed by succeeding series, and the top covered with a floor of 
thick planks to receive the masonry. 

^ Caissons. Where the soil is too yielding or the necessary area 
is not available, foundations are sometimes carried to the bedrock. 
This is done by the use of caissons which are sunk through the soft 
material to the rock. 

These caissons consist of a steel chamber, having the bottom 
edge extending below an air-tight floor, far enough to form a working 

chamber into which compressed air is 
forced, which keeps out the water and 
soft material, and enables the work¬ 
men to excavate and allow the caisson 
to sink to the bedrock. The exca¬ 
vated material is hoisted up through 
air-locked shafts, and the masonry 
of the foundation is built within the 
caisson, and helps to sink it down. 
When bedrock is reached, the working 
chamber is filled solid with concrete 
and a solid foundation is secured. 

This is called the plenum or 
compressed air process. Caissons are 
also sunk by the vacuum process, 
which consists in exhausting the air 
from the interior of the caisson, and allowing it to sink by the 
aid of the pressure of the atmosphere. By this process, the water 
is caused to flow under the lower edge of the caisson, loosening the 
soil and assisting the sinking of the caisson. 

Pile foundations are also used as already described, sometimes 
in connection with a timber grillage, but generally with a foundation 
of concrete or stone. (Fig. 206.) 

Cantilever Foundations. In buildings where, for any rea¬ 
son, it is not desirable or permissible to build foundations under an 



Fig. 206. Pile Foundation for 
Column. 


180 






























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


171 


adjoining building, cantilever girders are used to support the columns 
at the party line. The principle of this construction is shown in 
Fig. 207, where a simple cantilever is shown bearing upon a beam 
foundation and secured to an interior column. By a proper adjust- 




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j 




D C 


ment of the loads, this construction may be made as rigid as if the 
wall columns had each its own footing, and complications often 
avoided. 

Girders. Next in importance to the columns will come the 
steel girders which run between the columns, and support the floor 
beams. Where the load is too great for a single 
beam, two or more beams may be bolted together, 
as in Fig 208, or a girder may be 
built up of plates and angles, 
as in Fig. 209. These girders are 
connected to the columns by an¬ 
gles, varying in size and the num¬ 
ber of rivets, according to the load 
on the girder; and if they bear 
upon the mason work, steel or 
iron bearing plates must be provided to distribute 
the load over a surface large enough to sustain it safely. 

Girders which consist of two or more I-beams should be connected 
by means of bolts and cast iron separators, Fig. 210. The office of 


5 


Fig. 208. Steel Beam 
Girder. 


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Fig. 209. Plate and 
Angle Girder. 


181 









































172 


BUJLLJDJLJVG S U PJWK 1 NTKN DHiJNUlii 


these separators is to hold the beams in position, and cause them to act 
as one beam, and also to prevent lateral deflection under heavy loading. 

The separator shown in Fig. 210 is the type in general use, and 
consists of a series of bolts running through a plate-shaped casting 
made to fit accurately to the outlines of the beams, 
and having a width equal to the desired space 
between the webs of the beams. Another form of 
separator consists of spool-shaped castings of the 
required length to fit between the webs of the beams 
through which the bolts are run. These do not 
form so rigid a girder as the plate separators, ?nd 
are only used for light loads. (Fig. 211.) 

Qirder Connections. The connections of the girders with 
the columns are made by means of short pieces of angle iron riveted 
to the columns, above and below the girder, 
as in Fig. 212. The lower angle is made 
heavy and set so as to form a seat for the 
girder, and is reinforced by upright pieces of 
angle iron, also riveted to the column, if the 
load is very heavy. The upper angle serves 
to hold the top of the girder in place. 

Inspection. The workmanship of all riveting and splicing 
should be carefully watched, with especial attention paid to the 


Fig. 210. Cast Iron 
Plate Separator. 




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Fig. 211. Spool Sepa- 


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fitting of the pieces. It is usual to punch the 
* holes by machine and when several pieces are 
to be fitted it is almost impossible for the 
holes to fit over each other exactly. If the 
variation is not too great, it will generally be 
overcome by using a rivet smaller than the 
standard size, depending upon the hammering 
to make the metal fill the irregularities (which 
it will rarely do), so that the pieces are im¬ 
perfectly joined. This should be guarded 
against, and the holes should be drilled 
or reamed out to receive rivets of the stand¬ 
ard size. 

Bolting is often substituted for riveting if no objection is made, 
but this is not good work, as there is danger of the bolts working 


Fig. 212. Bearing of Beam 
Girder on Column. 


182 





























BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


173 


loose, while riveting is absolutely rigid if properly done. Of course 
a certain amount of bolting will be necessary, and this should be 
watched to see that the bolts fit, and are long enough to receive the 
nuts properly. 

When bolts are used on the sloping flanges of beams, bevelled 
washers should be used to give an even bearing. 

Painting. Too much care cannot be taken in protecting 
columns and other steel work from corrosion. Where the members 
are painted, it is of great importance to see that no rust has formed 
under the paint, as the process will continue if once begun. If, 
however, the metal is perfectly clean, it will be protected as long as 
the paint remains whole. “Mill scale,” a coating which is produced 
by the process of rolling the steel, must be removed before painting, 
or it will peel off and bring away the paint. 

Cement Coating. Where the steel is completely encased in a 
cement or plaster fireproofing, there will be danger that the paint 
will decay in course of time and leave a minute crevice between the 
steel and the masonry which will allow rust to form; and for this 
reason it is a good plan to coat the carefully cleaned steel with a wash 
of Portland cement, which unites with the masonry and maintains 
a perfect contact with the steel. Under these conditions, no further 
rust or corrosion will take place. 

Floor Construction. The size and spacing of the floor 
beams will depend upon the style of floor construction which may 
be adopted. The original fireproof floor consisted in spacing beams 
five or six feet apart, and turning a brick arch from flange to* flange 
of the beams, as in Fig. 213. The space above the arch is filled 



Fig. 213. Brick Floor Arch. 


with concrete up to about an inch above the beams, completely 
enclosing the steel; and screeds running parallel to the beams, bed¬ 
ded in the concrete, give a sufficient nailing for the floor boards. 
The ceiling underneath may be finished by simply plastering on the 
underside of the brick arch, or a level ceiling may be hung to the 


183 











174 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


rough floor. As an arch of this shape will exert considerable thrust, 
this must be taken up by the use of tie rods f-inch or f-inch in 
diameter, spaced along below the center line of beams at intervals 
of about six feet. This style of flooring will weigh about seventy 
pounds to the foot, and has been practically superseded by the lighter 
constructions employing terra-cotta arches or concrete. 

TerraXotta Floor Arches. Hollow terra-cotta blocks, moulded 
in the form of a flat arch, are used to a large extent for fireproof 
floors, and are to be obtained in a variety of patterns and devices. 
These various patterns may be divided into two principal classes, 
the side method and the end method. 

Side Method. The side method arch, where the blocks are 
laid with the webs parallel to the beams, Fig. 214, is the original 
form of terra-cotta floor arch, while the end method, where the blocks 
are laid end to end at right angles to the beams, is a later improve- 



Fig. 214. Side Method Terra-Cotta Arch. 


ment, designed to present the full end section of the material to resist 
the great thrust of the arches. These side method arches are usually 
made of dense terra-cotta and may be obtained of various depth from 
six to fifteen inches, and they should be set with close joints, and 
be thoroughly cemented together. Specially moulded blocks, called 
“skewbacks,” are made to fit the lower flanges of the beams and 
project about two inches below the beam, which is covered by a thin 
strip of tile. The space above the blocks is filled with a cinder con¬ 
crete, in which bevelled wood strips are embedded for a nailing 
for the wooden floors. 

Side method arches are made to break joints endways, so as 
to give a bond; and they are usually strong enough for all ordinary 
floor loads. The joints in the blocks are generally made parallel 
to the sides of the key block, as this gives a uniform pattern, and so 
is less expensive than a radial jointing, though the latter would make 


184 










BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


175 


a stronger arch, but on account of the expense of the different patterns, 
to make and adjust, it is little used. 

End Method. In this method, the blocks are usually made 
of porous terra-cotta and are set end to end, giving greater resistance 
to the thrust by forming a series of continuous webs from beam to 
beam. (Fig. 215.) In this system, the blocks are usually set in 



continuous lines, not breaking joints. The jointing of these tiles 
must be done with great care, as the open ends do not give so good 
a surface for cementing as in the side method, and, the bearing on 
the beams being given by the thin webs, it is necessary that they 
should fit perfectly. 

For this reason a combination method is often used, shown in 
Fig. 216. This is done to gain the extra strength of the end blocks, 



Fig. 216. Combination Terra-Cotta Arch. 


and the better bearing of the flat skewbacks, so that the skewbacks 
are made with many webs and of small sections. 

Setting. Floor tiles of either pattern must be set upon plank 
centers which are hung from the beams, and should be crowned 
one-quarter of an inch in an arch of six feet. All joints must be close, 
and made with cement. The centering should be left in place until 
the cement is thoroughly set, which will require from twelve to 
thirty-six hours, according to the weather and the nature of the 
cement, and care must be taken that the freshly laid tiles are not too 
heavily loaded with materials until they are hard. If the arches are 


185 


























176 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


to be plastered upon for a ceiling, they must be kept clean, or bad 
stains are likely to appear. All holes or irregularities on the under 
side must be filled with cement mortar to give a proper surface for 
plastering. Where it is not required to have a flat ceiling, but strength 
is the main factor to be observed, segmental tile arches are often 
used. (Fig. 217.) These may be used, with a rise of an inch to 
the foot, up to twenty feet of span, and are employed to great extent 
in warehouse construction. 

While the nature of floor tiles will not permit of a fine joint 
being made, they should be laid as closely as possible, especially 
the key blocks. Joints as great as a half-inch should not be per¬ 
mitted, and the tiles should be set in place by being “shoved” to¬ 
gether as in brick laying. Unless the building is closed in, floor tiles 
cannot be laid in cold climates when there is danger of freezing and 



Fig. 217. Segmental Terra-Cotta Arch. 


thawing, as the joints are liable to be affected to the extent of causing 
deflection if not more serious trouble. 

Floor arches are often tested by applying a heavy roller to the 
arches after the wood centers have been removed, and by dropping 
a heavy block of timber upon the arch, a two-inch bed of sand being 
previously spread over the tiles to prevent mechanical damage. 

Concrete Floors. The use of concrete for floors has become 
an important factor in the construction of fireproof buildings. Con¬ 
crete floors combine the qualities of strength and ease of manufacture 
with lightness and less expense than most of the hollow tile construc¬ 
tions. Concrete so used is generally found in combination with 
steel or iron in some form or other, to which it owes its tensile strength. 

Concrete floors may be considered under two classes, one in 
which the concrete in combination with steel members forms the 
whole of the floor, and the other in which steel I-beams are set as for 
hollow tiles with the spaces filled with concrete upon wire cloth or 
expanded metal, or with these or strands of wire embedded, as 
tension members, in a plate or arch of concrete. 


186 











pobch 



Pond & Pond, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 
For Exteriors, See Page 170. 
































































































































































Pond & Pond, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 























































































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


177 


Of the first-named class of concrete floors, the Ransome patent 
is the best known. (Fig. 218.) This consists of the use of twisted 
square bars of steel running through the lower portion of the plate 



Fig. 218. Heavy Ransome Floor. 


or beam to give the necessary tensile strength to the concrete; it has 
been used for spans up to thirty or forty feet without steel beams or 
girders. Another form of this floor consists of a lighter construction 
of concrete beams each with its twisted steel member, with a thin 
plate of concrete between. (Fig. 219.) 

The other system of concrete floor construction differs from 
the hollow tile floor construction in the use of concrete for a filling 


tr 

Fig. 219. 


Light Ransome Floor. 



between the beams instead of tiles; steel columns, girders and beams 
remaining the same as for the tile floors. 

These floors are usually to be found in one of two forms—the 
flat plate of concrete lying between the beams or the segmental arch 
of concrete formed upon a center of metal lathing. Of the former 
system, the plate floor of the Expanded Metal Co. is a good example. 
(Fig. 220.) This floor consists of a plate of cinder concrete, from 



three to seven inches thick, in which is embedded a continuous sheet of 
expanded metal which is laid over the tops of the beams and is allowed 


187 









































178 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


to sag down between them a few inches. A flat centering of planks 
is hung with its surface a little below the sag of the metal, and a con¬ 
crete of cinders and Portland cement is poured over and through 
the meshes of the expanded metal, and leveled off at an established 
height above the tops of the steel floor beams. Troughs are formed 
in the centering at each side of the floor beams which allows the 
concrete to completely enclose the beam. 

On this plate of concrete, a wooden or cement floor may be laid 
in the usual manner, and a flat ceiling formed below by hanging 
stiffened metal to the beams; or the underside of the concrete plate 
may be plastered upon, forming a series of panels. These plates, 
of seven inches thickness have been used up to seventeen feet of span 
between the beams; and the average floor will weigh about thirty- 
five pounds to the square foot, and is about four inches thick. 

Of the types of arched concrete floors, the Roebling patent is 
a fair example. (Fig. 221.) This construction consists of an arch 
of wire cloth stiffened with rods, which is sprung between the floor 



Fig. 221. Roebling Floor. 


beams with more or less of a rise according to the spacing of the 
beams. Upon this arch, a concrete of Portland cement and sand is 
deposited, making, when set, a solid slab of concrete three inches or 
more in thickness at the top', with the haunches leveled up to the top 
of the arch. The most economical proportions- for this floor have 
been found to be a basis of ten-inch beams, spaced according to the 
span and load, with an arch of three or four inches at the crown. This 
makes a very strong floor, and one not easily damaged, as it may 
be punctured by holes of any size without destroying the concrete 
arch, which is kept from shattering by the wire cloth. If a flat ceiling 
is required, it may be hung to the bottom of the beams of stiffened 
wire cloth and may be flat or panelled as desired. No centering 
is required with this floor, as the stiffened arches are bent to the 


188 










BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


179 


required curvature, and after being set in place, they possess enough 
strength to receive the load of concrete or the shock of any falling 
body. Being open to the air both above and below, the concrete 
sets quickly, two days being generally enough for safe use. 

While these systems of floor construction are typical of the main 
features of all, they are not necessarily the best or only kinds, for 
many other systems, embodying variations of these features, are in 
constant use, some making use of twisted wire strands in place of 
expanded metal to support the concrete plate, others, steel bars of 
special pattern. 

Selection. With so many styles of floor available, each pos¬ 
sessing merits of its own, the architect will often be at a loss to decide 
upon a special system. Cost, which is an ever-present factor, will 
decide in some cases, and in others, local considerations may require 
particular methods. In the main, consideration should be given to 
lightness, strength, and fire-resisting qualities, as well as speed of 
erection and the skill of available workmen. Of the respective 
merits of the two rival systems of terra-cotta arches and concrete, 



much has been written, especially in regard to fire-resisting qualities, 
but the question of durability cannot be said to have been settled at 
the present time. For very high buildings one of the systems requir¬ 
ing the use of steel floor beams and girders will usually be adopted, 
and the beams spaced with reference to the load and the requirements 
of the floor construction; these beams may rest entirely on the top 
of the girders, but are usually framed flush with the top, allowing 
the girder to project if it is deeper than the beam. The beams are 
connected with the girder by means of angles riveted to the webs of 
the beam and girder. (Fig. 222.) Connections of the floor beams 
with the columns, which will occur where the spacing of the floor 
beams brings a beam opposite to a column, are made as described 


189 


















180 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


for light girders. The outside beams of the floor are sometimes 
allowed to run behind the exterior columns, forming no part of the 
exterior construction, but more often they are framed between the 
columns, and, in connection with other supports, help to carry the 
enclosing walls of the building. (Fig. 223.) 

Roof and Ceilings. As the roofs 
of high buildings are in general made 
with very little pitch, the same construc¬ 
tion may be used'here as for the floors, 
but a special treatment will be required to 
retain a level ceiling in the upper story. 
This is usually done by hanging steel 
T-bars at a level below the roof, and 
upon these a ceiling may be laid either 
of terra-cotta blocks to be plastered, as 
in Fig. 224, or of metal lathing, Fig. 225. 

Exterior Walls. The construction 
of the exterior skeleton of a fireproof 
building will require special treatment 
according to the covering material to be used. While the adopted 
type of floors may be carried throughout one or several buildings, by 
a simple repetition of methods, the con¬ 
struction of the outside frame will vary 
with the different materials used in differ¬ 
ent buildings, or often in different por¬ 
tions of the same building. 

In general, the weight of the exte- 




Fig. 224. Hanging of Terra-Cotta Ceiling. 



Fig. 225. Hanging of Wire Lath 
Ceiling. 


rior walls, especially above the first two stories, must be carried 
by the steel frame. The two or three lower stories, on the street 
side being largely glass area, the piers are often carried by the 
foundations below. These piers are sometimes of stone enclosing 


190 



















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


181 


the steel columns, but brick or terra-cotta are used to great extent. 
For the upper stories, especially of a fireproof building, brick or 
terra-cotta are to be recommended, not only on account of the 
fire-resisting qualities, but also because of the ease with which they 
may be built around the skeleton frame. 

In general, the exterior treatment of a building of skeleton con¬ 
struction will resolve itself into a series of piers, more or less marked 
in character, which enclose the vertical supports, the space between 
being to a great extent occupied by windows, with a horizontal piece 
of masonry separating the windows of each story and covering the 
floors. 

The masonry enclosing the columns is generally supported by 
brackets or angles riveted to the columns, and the horizontal bands 
of masonry between the windows, called 
spandrels, are supported by beams of 
requisite size and shape, which run be¬ 
tween the columns and are riveted to 
them. 

The character of these supports will 
vary with the design of the building; but 
in general the inner beam will of neces¬ 
sity be of such form that it may also 
be used to support the floor construc¬ 
tion. (Fig. 226.) 

Wind Pressure. A distinctive prob¬ 
lem of high building construction is the 
provision for lateral resistance to wind 
pressure. Unless the building is more than four times its width in 
height, the effect of the wind pressure is not a serious consideration. 
The danger of overturning the building bodily is very remote, the chief 
danger being a tendency to shear the connections or twist and distort 
the frame. Sometimes the ordinary framing of the floors and columns 
will be sufficient, and in other cases special provision must be made. 
This is done by diagonal ties where the construction will allow, as 
shown in Fig. 227. When the spaces between the columns must be 
used for passage or for windows, knee braces and deep girders are 
used, as in Fig. 228, and portal bracing is sometimes adopted, but 
to no great extent. (Fig. 229.) 



Fig. 226. Spandrel Beam. 


191 












182 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


TYPES or WIND BRACING 


Inspection. Steel and iron members are inspected in the mill, 
the shop, and on the job. Mill inspection is to determine the quality 

of the steel, while shop 
inspection relates to the 
preparation of the mem¬ 
bers. 

It is necessary to see 
that the drawings are ac¬ 
curately followed, and the 
work properly assembled, 
that the quality of work 
is up to the standard, 
riveted tightly and accu¬ 
rately done. The mem¬ 
bers must be straight and 
free from twists or bends, 
punching sharp and true, 
with the holes in the dif¬ 
ferent pieces exactly op¬ 
posite. Column ends and 
all bearing surfaces true 
and at right angles to 
the axis. All portions 
not accessible after put¬ 
ting together must be 
painted before being as¬ 
sembled. 

Terra=Cotta Cover= 
ing. The adaptability 
of terra cotta to the ex¬ 
terior adornment and 
fireproofing of buildings 
is so great that its use 
has become general in all 
places where durability 
and resistance to heat 




Once a by Portais of P/ates emf/by 
to resist tf/nat Pressure 


Fig. 229. 


are essential. The ornamental facings can not always be sup¬ 
ported by direct bearing on the steel frame, and so a system of 


192 












































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


183 


anchors and ties must be devised by which the separate blocks may 
be held in place. 

For terra-cotta finish which has no great projection from the 
line of support, ties of one-quarter inch rods may be hooked into the 
ribs of the terra cotta and secured to the steel frame or the brick 
filling, as in Fig. 230, but when a greater projection is required, as 
for cornices, small beams or T-irons must be used, well built in or 



Fig. 230. Anchoring of Terra Cotta. 



Fig. 231. Terra-Cotta Cornice. 


anchored to the main structure, as in Fig. 231. Exterior terra cotta 
as ordinarily finished is not affected by the atmospheric conditions 
which affect stone; but as the surfaces are liable to become warped 
in the baking, it will be necessary to see that no attempt is made to 
straighten bad pieces by chiselling, as this destroys the surface and 
exposes the softer interior to decay. 

Fireproofing. We have thus far considered the covering of 
the steel skeleton from the point of obtaining an available floor surface, 
and the necessary housing in by means of the exterior walls. While 
these elements are also made to serve their turn in protecting the 
frame from fire and the elements, further and complete protection 
from fire must be considered as of prime importance. 

Columns. Especially is this true in the case of the columns, 
which necessarily sustain a great weight, and should therefore be 
adequately protected. Columns may be enclosed in brick, which 
should be not less than eight inches thick, or hollow terra-cotta tiles 
may be used, preferably in two layers, each not less than two inches 


193 















184 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


thick and breaking joints. (Fig. 232.) Columns may also be pro¬ 
tected by the use of metal lathing and plaster in one or two layers 
with an air space between. (Fig. 233.) 

Girders. While the floor beams and flush girders are pro¬ 
tected normally by the floor or ceiling construction, girders which 



drop below the floor must be given a special protection. This may 
be of porous terra-cotta blocks, shown in Fig. 234, or of metal lathing 
and plaster, Fig. 235. 

The makers of floor construction have each their own system of 
fireproofing of girders and columns and other exposed members, and, 
in general, the contractor for the floors will be given a contract for all 
the other fireproofing of the building. 

Partitions. The partitions of fireproof buildings may be built 
of brick, terra-cotta, tiles, or plaster blocks, or of light iron studding 
with metal lathing and plaster. Brick partitions, to resist the passage 
of fire, must be at least twelve inches thick, and so are not generally 



Fig. 234. Terra-Cotta Girder Casing. 



(= 0 =** 

<=0=p 



Fig. 235. Lath and Plaster Girder Casing. 


used unless required for floor bearing also. With the column and 
girder construction which we have had under consideration, a lighter 
construction than brick is generally desired for partitions. 

Partition Blocks, Terra-cotta blocks, either of dense or 
porous terra cotta, make a very good partition; these are usually 
made four inches thick, and are of the same composition as the floor 
blocks. They are usually set with the hollows running horizontally, 


/ 


194 









































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


185 


in order to obtain the flat surface for bedding, but where it is necessary 
to cut for vertical pipes, it is well to set a vertical line of blocks on end 
and clamp them to the flat tiles. All openings for doors and windows 
are framed with wooden studs (or with steel bars, if the door frames 
are of cast iron) to receive the frames and finish. (Fig. 236.) For 
thinner partitions, blocks of solid 
porous terra cotta two inches thick 
may be used, but they must be 
clamped or banded together. A 
patented partition may be obtained 
of thin terra-cotta plates reinforced 
by twisted steel wires run on either 
side of the plates and embedded in the plaster. Thin plates 
having plaster of Paris for a base, and clamped or banded with 
iron, are also used for partition blocks where extra lightness 
is required. 

For all of these blocks, mortar composed of lime with a little 
cement should be used for setting, and the finished plaster surfaces 
are best when hard-setting plaster is used. 

Metal Lath Partitions. For a saving of floor space, very 
thin partitions may be made by using small steel bars for studding; 
these are usually f-inch channel bars set vertically about a foot apart 
and turned at a right angle to be fastened top 
and bottom. On one side metal lathing is 
stretched and wired to the bars. This is plastered 
with a very heavy coat of hard plaster, which 
squeezes through the lathing and makes a good 

Fig. 237. Steel and Lath Partition. Fig. 238. Steel Stud. 

surface to receive the plaster of the other side side of the parti¬ 
tion, forming, when completed, a solid wall of plaster and metal 
about 1| inches thick. (Fig. 237.) It is necessary in this case 
to use a very hard setting plaster, as this gives the partition its 
stiffness. Special patented studs of sheet steel, made with prongs 
to hold the lathing, and of various depths, Fig. 238, are used in a 
similar manner. Door and window frames are set in these thm 




195 



















186 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


partitions, by setting up a rough wooden frame to which the channel 
bar is screwed, as in Fig. 239, and for a nailing for chair rails, picture 
mouldings, and other finish, scrips of wood are laced to the lathing, 
flush with the plastering before the plaster is applied. (Fig. 240.) 

ITetal Lathing. Metal lathing, which is of great importance, 
both for fireproofing, and the finish of fireproof buildings, may be 
obtained in a variety of patterns and devices. The original form 

of metal lathing was the common wire 
cloth, and this is still one of the prin¬ 
cipal forms in which metal lathing is 
found. Improvement in the manu¬ 
facture of wire cloth for lathing may 
be found in the various means adopted 
for stiffening the cloth by rods or ribs of metal. These are attached 
to, or woven into, the lathing which is then known as “ stiffened 
lathing/’ 

A well-known form of stiffened lathing is the Clinton lath, which 
contains corrugated steel furring strips, attached to the cloth by metal 
clips and running across the roll every eight 
inches. These strips not only serve to stiffen 
the lathing, when stretched over furrings, but, if 
the lathing is applied directly to a plain surface, 
such as planking or brick walls, the stiffening 
keeps the lathing away, and allows room for the 
clinch of the plaster. 

The Roebling stiffened lathing contains V- 
shaped ribs of various depth, which are woven 
into the cloth at 7 - 2 -inch intervals. These ribs F FurringHaTWn 
serve tor a turrmg, and are made from f to If 
inches in depth. For special uses, ribs of J-inch steel rods are 
used instead of the V-shaped steel. Wire cloth for lathing is run in 
a variety of meshes; 3X3 and 2\ X 2b to the inch being the com¬ 
mon mesh, and it may be obtained plain, painted or galvanized; 
painted lathing being very satisfactory, and more generally used 
than any other kind. 

Expanded ITetal Lathing. This form of lathing is made 
from strips of thin and tough sheet steel, which are cut at regular 
intervals and then “expanded” by being wrenched or pushed into 




Fig. 239. Door Finish in Thin 
Partition. 


196 

















BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


187 


open meshes, greater or less, as the cuts are made longer or shorter. 
This expanding also turns the metal on edge, making a flat and stiff 
sheet of lathing much larger than the original piece of metal. (Fig. 
241.) Having a degree of stiffness, this lathing does not require 
stretching, and it is used extensively 
for wrapping steel beams or columns 
for fireproofing or finishing, for thin 
partitions, and for concrete floors. 

An objection is sometimes made 
to wire or expanded metal laths, that 
they require an excessive amount of 
plaster for ordinary uses. This may 
be overcome, when feasible, by the 
use of the Bostwick sheet metal lath, 
shown in Fig. 242. This is made from sheet steel by punch¬ 
ing out loops at regular intervals. In this, and many other forms 
of sheet metal lathing, the surface is corrugated, besides being 

punched, to give stiffness and to 
keep the lathing away from the sur¬ 
face to which it is applied. Sheet 
metal lathing is easily adapted to 
the forming of coves or round cor¬ 
ners, but for fireproofing the open 
lathing, requiring a greater amount 
of plaster, with the metal more 
thoroughly imbedded, is to be pre¬ 
ferred. 

Hard Plaster. The use of the so-called “hard plaster,” for 
the finishing of business and public buildings, is to be advised wher¬ 
ever the slight increase in expense can be borne. For business blocks, 
the saving in time will usually more than cover the extra cost, and 
for schools or hospitals the harder and cleaner surface is to be desired. 

These plasters are made, some of natural cement, and others 
by chemical preparation, and when dry they form a clean hard surface. 
The natural cement plaster is slower of setting, but of greater adhe 
siveness, but the chemical or patented plasters set very quickly and 
give good results when properly used. The cement plasters are sold 
as a cement only and the sand is applied when the mortar is mixed. 



Fig 242. Bostwick Lath. 





Fig. 241. Expanded Metal Lathing. 


197 











188 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


For use on lathing, “fibered cement ” should be obtained, but for 
plastering on brickwork or terra cotta, cement without fiber may be 
used. These cements are known as Acme, Agatite, or Royal cement. 

The best known of the chemically prepared plasters are King’s 
Windsor, Adamant, and Rock plaster. These are sold with the 
fiber and sand all combined and ready to use, by mixing with water 
in the prescribed proportion. Full instructions for use are furnished 
by the manufacturers, and these directions should be absolutely 
followed, as they are the result of careful preparation and long expe¬ 
rience. These plasters can be finished with a white coat as upon 
lime mortar, and this will be necessary if a white finish is desired 
upon the natural cement plasters, as they are gray in color, 

Keene’s Cement, For a very hard finish for bases, dadoes, 
columns, etc., or for any plaster work where a polish is required, 
Keene’s cement, an English preparation, is generally used; but some 
of the best grades of American manufacture are said to be as hard 
and of less expense than the imported cement. Keene’s cement is 
sold in two grades, coarse and superfine, either of which will make 
a hard finish, but superfine should be used where a polish is to be 
desired. 

Scagliola. For interior finish, scagliola, or imitation marble, 
is used to some extent for columns, dadoes, etc. This is made upon 
a ground of lime mortar containing a large proportion of lime and 
hair. When this groundwork is thoroughly dry, it is covered with a 
coat of Keene’s cement on plaster of Paris, which is mixed with the 
various colors and polished until it resembles marble. For flat 
surfaces, this is sometimes made in slabs upon plate glass. Silk 
threads, dipped in a thin solution of plaster of Paris, colored to imitate 
the veining, are arranged upon the glass, and the body color put on 
over them. The silk threads are then withdrawn, and a backing of 
plaster of Paris and cement, with a webbing of canvas, is spread to 
the desired thickness. The slabs, when hard and dry, may be taken 
from the glass and polished in the same manner as genuine marble. 
When scagliola is skillfully made and polished, its resemblance to 
genuine marble is almost perfect. 

Window Frames. It has been the custom to make the window 
frames and sashes of a fireproof building of wood, in the same manner 
as for ordinary city buildings, depending upon shutters of tinned 


198 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


189 


wood or metal construction for protection from external fires. Later 
developments of fireproof construction, and the disastrous effects 
of fires in the vicinity of many so-called fireproof buildings, have 
led to the growing use of metal for all external parts. Several pat- 



Fig. 243. Fireproof Window. Fig. 244. Fireproof Window. 


ented forms of metal frames and sashes have been introduced, among 
which are some made of wood and covered with metal, as shown in 
Fig. 243, and others entirely of metal, as in Fig. 244. These windows 
are arranged to close automatically, and, when glazed with wire glass 
or with small lights of prismatic 
glass in metal bars, form a filling 
which is acceptable to most of the 
insurance exchanges as fireproof. 

This form of glazing is of 
course not adaptable to show win¬ 
dows and large store lights, but as 
the upper stories are subjected to 
the greater danger from fire in 

adjoining buildings, this defect is Fig. 245. Cast-ironStair Stringers 
not serious. 

Interior Finish. While wood is in general use for interior 
finishing, it is now possible to obtain inside doors and finish made 
or covered with metal. These doors are usually made of thin sheet 
metal over a core of pine, and they may be plain or moulded to re¬ 
semble wooden doors. 

Stairs. The stairs of a high building are. rarely used above the 
lower stories, except for emergency, or at times when the elevators 



199 







































190 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


are not running; so it is the custom to make staircases simple in design 
and construction, except perhaps the lower flights, which are often 
made of marble or of ornamental iron or steel. A simple form of 
stair construction, and one in general use, consists of a plain cast-iron 
stringer with cast-iron riser and marble or mosaic treads. (Fig. 245.) 
The outside stringer may be more or less ornamental, and the soffit 
or under side of the flight should be neat and presentable, as it will be 
in close view when passing down the flight underneath. The stairs 
should be arranged so that the stringers will not be too long to be of 
cast iron, if desired; but sometimes a 
steel beam or channel is used with the 
forming for the steps bolted on, as in 
Fig. 246. In either case, the bottom 
and top of the stringers must be securely 
fastened to the floor beams. Sometimes 
the stairs will be laid out to enclose one 
or more elevators in the well room, and 
in this case a support for the stringers 
may be obtained by the corner posts of 
the elevator enclosure, which, in turn, will be strengthened by the 
lateral support of the stairs. 

PIPES AND CONDUITS. 

The running of pipes and conduits in fireproof buildings brings 
forward a system, differing in some essentials from the ordinary 
piping of buildings with wooden floors. In the first place, less cutting 
of material is available to make spaces for pipes, and so more careful 
consideration must be given to this matter in the early stages of the 
construction; and again the necessity of leaving no continuous chan¬ 
nels or connection from one floor to another, which would allow the 
passage of fire, will require that the pipes be run in. exposed situa¬ 
tions as far as possible, so that the floor material may be filled closely 
around each pipe. This is a point that the superintendent will need 
to keep constantly in mind and be sure that it is done in every case. 

Plumbing Pipes. The main soil, waste and vent pipes should 
be of wrought iron with screw joints, not only on account of the great 
weight of the high stacks of pipes, but because the expansion and 
contraction of the great height of pipe would destroy the lead caulking 



Fig. 246. Beam Stair Stringer 
and Finish. 


200 








BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


191 


usual with cast-iron pipes. The pipes must be securely fastened to 
the solid frame of the building, and all joints well screwed together 
with ample chance for expansion. Brass supply pipes should be 
used throughout, nickeled or bronzed to taste when showing. As 
the pipes will all show, the soil and waste pipes will need to be smooth 
and well put together so that when bronzed or finished they will not 
be unsightly. 

Gas and Electric Piping. Before the plastering is begun, 
the pipes for gas and the conduits for electric wires, must be run. 
These, being small, may be concealed, if desired, although the idea 
of exposing gas piping is becoming more in vogue, especially where 
thin partitions are used. When hollow blocks are used for the parti¬ 
tions it is customary to channel them 
for the rising pipes and conduits; 
while the horizontal pipes are usually 
bedded in the concrete filling over the 
floor construction. (Fig. 247.) Some¬ 
times the horizontal pipes are run un- 

. ii ., Fig. 247. Electric outlet in ceiling. 

der the floor beams, the suspended ceil¬ 
ing being dropped low enough to allow free circulation for the pipes. 
Sometimes the pipes are run between the floor beams; but if the 
girders are framed flush, it will be necessary to punch holes in them, 
and lateral branches cannot be easily managed. Where no partitions 
are available in which to run vertical pipes, as often occurs in the 
lower stories, the casing of the steel columns 
may be enlarged, so as to allow of pipes 
being run up, but if this is done, a sepa¬ 
rate flue outside the column casing, as in 
Fig. 248, should be made, as the insertion 
of pipes or conduits directly into the column 
casing destroys its fireproof value to a large 
extent, beside subjecting the steel to the 
action of injurious gases. 

Heating Pipes. The pipes for heating the building will in 
general be run outside of the plaster, and will be bronzed to match 
the radiators and other exposed piping. The number and size of the 
pipes will depend upon the system of heating used. For a large 
building, the heating is generally put in charge of an engineer who 



Fig. 248. Pipes in Column 
Casing. 



201 

















192 


BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


devises a system subject to the approval of the architect, but some 
stated conditions will in general be found to apply to most buildings. 

Heating System. In almost every large building, the exhaust 
steam from the engines necessary to run elevators and dynamos will 
suffice to heat the rooms, and this may be done in two ways. The 
exhaust steam may be forced or drawn through the radiators and 
transmit heat directly to the building, or it may be carried to a coil 
in a water tank in the basement, heating the water, and causing it to 
circulate through the pipes and radiators instead of the steam. By 
the latter method a more uniform distribution of heat will be obtained 
and any danger of back pressure on the engines will be avoided. 
This tank must be placed low enough to prevent any backing up of 
the water to the engine, and the circulation of hot water to the radia¬ 
tors may be laid out in a manner similar to the circulation from an 
ordinary heater, which has been previously described. The greater 
height and multiplication of radiators will require a much more 
complicated system of piping, but the main features will be the same. 
The most effective service will of course be obtained by putting as 
few radiators as possible on a direct circulation, but as this adds very 
much to the expense it is quite usual to run one or two large mains 
up to the top story and from a horizontal run in this story, to bring 
down the hot water to supply the radiators, continuing this pipe to 
the heater. This of course gives a better supply to the top stories 
than the lower ones, so the difference is made up by putting larger 
radiators in the lower stories. 

The first story, being subjected to more glass exposure and cold 
from the doors, is sometimes supplied directly from the risers, and 
the discharge returned by separate pipes to the tank, while the other 
radiators, being supplied by a descending current, are supplied and 
discharged into the same pipe without interfering with the circulation. 
The system of indirect steam heating by a fan is often to be preferred 
for the large stores or corporation offices, which usually occupy the 
lower story of a city block. For the heating of the smaller upper 
offices it is a good plan to drop a riser, as described, between each 
pair of windows, placing a small radiator in front of each window. 
These may be supplied with fresh air by means of sash venti¬ 
lators or other fresh air inlets, or they may warm the room by direct 
radiation. 


202 





RESIDENCE OF MR. W. W. WILLITS, HIGHLAND PARK, ILL 

Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect, Oak Park, Ill. 

Plan Shown on Opposite Page. 





























iwvXaac I iwwac 



I 


FIRST-FLOOR PLAN OF RESIDENCE OF MR. W. W. WILLITS, HIGHLAND PARK, ILL 

Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect, Oak Park, Ill. 

Exterior View Shown on Opposite Page. 



















































































































































































































BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


193 


Lavatory Fittings. The plumbing fixtures of an office build¬ 
ing need not differ to a great extent from house fittings, and the same 
principles of construction will apply. The fixtures will consist mainly 
of bowls or sinks and water closets and urinals. All fittings should 
be strong and of simple construction, easily accessible for repairs 
or cleaning. The use of wood for partitions or floors should be 
avoided when possible, marble slabs and marble, mosaic, or tile 
floors being preferable. Water closets should be placed in well 
ventilated ranges, with partitions of marble, and slatted doors kept 
up a foot from the floor. All hinges, fastenings, and metal fixtures 
should be of nickel-plated brass. Urinals of the ventilated hood 
pattern are to be preferred and these should have a dished floor slab 
of ample dimension. 

Inside Finish. While wood is used to a large extent for the 
inside finish of fireproof buildings, the use of incombustible materia) 
is increasing. The forms of metal sash construction which we have 
described for outside windows may all be adapted to interior uses, 
and, with metal doors and frames, and marble or mosaic floors, each 
office may be made practically fireproof in itself. Doors with sheet 



Fig. 249. Cast-iron Door 
Jamb. 



Fig. 250. Sheet Metal Door and Finish. 


metal covering are often used, and these may be set in cast-iron frames 
made with rebates or channels to receive the plaster or block parti¬ 
tions. (Fig. 249.) The doors are sometimes made of hollow metal, but 
more often of a pine core completely encased in sheet metal. (Fig. 250.) 

PAINTING. 


With the hanging of the doors and the setting of the hardware, 
the mechanical processes will be completed, and the building will be 
turned over to the painters for finishing. 


203 






























194 BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


Here the methods and materials will differ little from ordinary 
painter’s work, and mainly in the lesser amount of woodwork and 
the greater amount of finished metal and plaster work to be treated. 

All iron or steel work which is to be painted must be perfectly 
clean and free from rust or moisture. Rust spots may be removed by 
scraping or burning, and fine ornamental work should be thoroughly 
cleaned, and the paint carefully applied in thin coats so as not to 
obscure the pattern. 

Plaster which is to be painted must be free from flaws or cracks, 
and both the plaster and the wall behind it must be thoroughly dry. 
Plastered walls should be brushed over just before painting, and the 
surface sized or primed. 

Completion. With the departure of the painters, it will remain 
only to see that the building is thoroughly cleaned from top to bottom, 
and all paint spots removed from glass, marble, and all other exposed 
material. 

The. superintendent should carefully review all notes and mem¬ 
oranda made during the progress of the work, and be prepared to 
furnish a complete and detailed account of proceedings, including 
a record of all orders received and given, materials rejected, and the 
defects which warranted their rejection. 

A diary should be kept, recording the state of the weather, the 
number of men of the different trades employed, the progress from 
day to day, a record of accidents, and any other data which would 
be likely to prove of value or interest. A record of this sort will not 
only be of possible value to the owner, but will contain data which 
may be of great value to the superintendent as a guide for future 
operations. 


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CONTRACTS 
AND SPECIFICATIONS. 

PART I. 


In order to build intelligently and with profit, it is essential—after the scheme 
has been developed on the drawings—that the materials and their qualities be so 
selected and designated that there can be no misunderstanding relative thereto, on 
the part of either the Owner or the Builder, and that only such materials be re¬ 
quired as the former is prepared to pay for. 


GENERAL PROVINCE 

The province of a “Specification” is to supplement the drawings, 
setting forth those points in the proposed work which cannot be 
readily expressed by diagram (and figures). It may therefore be 
said that its principal object is to define the general conditions un¬ 
der which the work is to be done, and describe the quality of the ma¬ 
terials to be used. 

Its literary side should be considered, so that it will be a continu¬ 
ous description of the matter, dealing fully with each subject or each 
part of the work in proper sequence, and, after so dealing, never 
reiterating the requirements either in whole or in part. Short 
sentences referring first to one subject and then to another of doubtful 
relationship, should never be allowed. 

Before a specification is begun, its limits are fixed by the draw¬ 
ings ; on them the scheme is illustrated fully, the material indicated 
in a general way, and all sizes shown. It is the imperative duty of 
the specification writer, 

(1) To acquaint himself most carefully with all that is illus¬ 
trated by the drawings; 

(2) To determine all that is not. 

Having settled in his mind this second point, he has the province 
and the limits of his work before him; for, as above stated, it is the 


207 




2 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


province of the specification to set forth those points which cannot 
be explained by the drawings. A most careful study of the drawings, 
therefore, is necessary in order to see every point in the proposed 
scheme which they do not cover—which points must be covered in the 
specification. 

To attempt to enforce requirements already fully shown by the 
drawings, by calling attention to them again in the specification, 
while it adds nothing in the way of obligation, has the effect of casting 
doubt on those requirements which are not thus doubly set forth. 

A careful consideration, then, of the province of the specification 
will show that its functions are to define the relations between the 
different parties, the conditions under which the work is to be done, 
and the materials used in execution. These are the points which 
have everything to do with the cost of the work. In building, as in 
most other items, the form and shape have less to do with the cost 
than have the conditions under which the work is done and the 
materials required therefor. 

Specifications should never impose conditions Which can involve 
the contractor in any unnecessary trouble or expense. They should 
aim so to modify all conditions that there will always be a feeling on 
the part of the contractor that there is a co-operation with him to 
produce the desired result without unnecessary expense or incon¬ 
venience. The result desired should always be apparent in the 
wording of the specification; the means of obtaining that result should 
—except in rare cases—be left to the contractor, who h alone respon¬ 
sible for such result. 

The payments on the contract, while so arranged as to protect 
the owner fully against over-payment, should be arranged in such a 
way as to require the use of a minimum amount of capital on the part 
of the contractor, and to render it possible for him, if his capital is 
limited, to discount all his bills and pay his labor promptly. This 
co-operation is all for the interest of the owner, as it is evident that 
a much larger number, and often a much better class of men, will 
figure on work when such a spirit prevails than when specifications 
seem to point to a domineering spirit. 

Sometimes it is imagined, that, unless the conditions are set forth 
with some degree of harshness, the owner will feel that sufficient 
protection to his interests has not been provided, etc.; but, before 


808 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


3 


the completion of the work, he will probably see in the smoothness 
with which the work progresses that the tact of his architect has saved 
him much annoyance and a considerable sum of money. 

The same spirit should govern in regard to the materials required; 
and, whereas in the above the spirit of tact (the business spirit) must 
govern, in the matter of material on the other hand, technical knowl¬ 
edge may be shown. By this, it is not intended that the technical 
knowledge should be exercised to find out and require what under a 
general analysis would be called the best materials of each kind, 
but rather those materials which in this particular case will be suffi¬ 
cient at the minimum cost. 

It is probable that with the beginner, as oftentimes with many 
others, the matter of how far the money can be made to go will be 
the first problem—whether, for example, for $5,000 results which 
ordinarily require $6,000 can be obtained. To meet this demand, 
it is evident that the specification writer must use his technical knowl¬ 
edge to determine what are the cheapest and poorest materials he 
can satisfactorily use to accomplish the result. The old expression, 
“the best is the cheapest,” is often used as a cloak for ignorance of 
how to use anything but the most expensive. 

“Standard specifications,” which require “standard materials,” 
put in by “standard methods,” have done their part most fully to dis¬ 
courage owners, contractors, and finally architects. The same 
judgment used in buying supplies of life that will satisfy requirements, 
should be used in buying building material; and success in buying 
depends on knowing how poor, as well as how good, to buy. 

The Owner. The owner is the autocrat; his wishes are to govern; 
and, unless his interest can be thoroughly aroused, the transaction 
will probably end unsatisfactorily. There is no person so hard to 
serve as one who, while feeling it necessary to build, has no interest 
in the process. When done, the work will never be quite what he 
thought it would be, and he will never be satisfied. Therefore, if 
possible, his interest should be enlisted concerning as many details 
of materials as possible, and the reason for using one and not another. 
His questions will at first be trying. Possibly the first query will be, 
how much greater per cent will be the cost of a brick or stone-faced 
house over wood; and no amount of argument or explanation will 
convince him that no definite ratio exists. But the question can 


209 



4 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


be used as an excuse to discuss the different qualities of brick or kinds 
of stone which he likes; and soon technical knowledge of these 
materials will awaken an interest and call out more rational questions. 
This will reveal what kind of materials are satisfactory, and an estimate 
quickly made will answer the question. 

It is the right of the owner to understand all the differences in 
quality of materials, and why they are to be used. If he does not, 
he will probably be much annoyed by the wiseacres, who are sure to 
criticise everything delivered on the site, and the end is apt to 
be severe criticism of the architect, who “did not know enough to 
specify the best.” It will rarely occur to the owner, that, had the 
best been specified, it would have carried his building well into the 
hands of the mortgagee. This interest, too, will lead to co-operation 
with the architect and the contractor, which will lead the owner to 
“give and take” in minor matters, to the mutual advantage of himself 
and the contractor. It is, further, his right to have freaks and notions; 
and, after a careful presentation of the case, his ideas as to materials, 
though they may be decidedly different from those of his architect, 
should be respected, and the material incorporated as dictated by him. 
Herein is the opportunity for the architect to use his best technical 
knowledge, and so meet the conditions that in spite of them the 
result will be satisfactory. The architect who says that he carried out 
the dictations of the owner and is not responsible for the result, is apt 
to lose a patron and possibly make an enemy. 

The Contractor. As a general thing, the only object the contractor 
has in mind in taking the work is the pecuniary profit to himself in 
the transaction. It is rarely that satisfactory results can be obtained 
from a man who is losing money; generally he so manages that the 
owner is as great a loser, and the architect is blamed for the losses 
of both. 

While the contractor is under obligations, after taking the con¬ 
tract, to carry out the work “as directed,” it is well to remember that 
his assumption of the contract was a purely voluntary act on his part, 
and that he was under no obligation to take it. It is his right to know, 
before he puts in his bid, just what he is expected to furnish and to do, 
and not to be left to furnish what in the judgment of some one not 
interested in him are materials of “best quality” or “good quality.” 
Nothing will so much tend to draw from him the best results, as to 


210‘ 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


5 


feel the sentiment of co-operation before referred to on the part of 
the owner and the architect. 

The Specification Writer. The central figure in this transaction 
is the specification writer. His tact must arrange the conditions 
under which the work is to be done; his technical knowledge must 
supply the data, and set forth in clear, explicit language the descrip¬ 
tion of the material which the contractor is to furnish and the owner 
is to accept. He is to be the arbitrator when any question arises 
affecting the interests of both in conflicting ways; and for his comfort 
the arbitration must be such that both sides will see its full justice. 
In order that the necessity for arbitration may arise as seldom as 
possible, it is the more necessary that all the conditions and ques¬ 
tions liable to cause misunderstanding be fully studied and settled in 
the specification. It is the duty of the superintendent to see that 
the contractor follows out the requirements of the specification; but it 
is unfortunate to have the specification so loosely written that the 
requirements are ambiguous or at least not explicit and the con¬ 
tractor is made to feel that he is distrutsed, or that he is obliged to 
furnish materails or labor at a loss under an arbitrary decision, which, 
had he been more fully informed as to the detailed requirements, he 
would not have done. 

(Particular attention is called to the following paragraph, as the 
advice contained therein is of the utmost value.) 

Thus, the specification writer must be a man of tact and technical 
knowledge. It is outside the scope of this paper to discuss the former 
quality except in a most general way; but it will be its object so to 
treat the technical side that the student can develop such lines of 
thought as will enable him, whenever questions arise, to attack them 
from such points as will gain for him the necessary inside information; 
and it is in no sense its intent to set up such matter as will serve as 
models and forms to be applied to miscellaneous conditions. His 
training as a specification writer should be such as to accustom him 
to think in building material ; and when the habit is formed, the student, 
in passing structures completed or in course of construction from day 
to day, will constantly find himself reasoning as to the use of various 
materials. This is technical education. No school, no matter how 
long or how thorough its course, will cover all the points to be decided 
in the first modest specification. All the training any school can give 


211 



6 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


is to teach a man to think out the solution of his first and each succeed¬ 
ing commission along sound lines. This is the character of work 
which rouses enthusiasm in the worker and without which the work 
will amount to little. 

OUTLINE OF THE WORK 

For illustrations in connection with the following pages, the con¬ 
struction of a city house is selected, on a corner lot 100 feet front on 
the Avenue, by 150 feet deep, on side street, a party wall on the inside 
line. The house is to come out to the Avenue sidewalk line, with 
coal vaults under sidewalk. The Avenue in front is paved, with curb 
and sidewalk in place. There are no improvements of this char¬ 
acter on the side street. 

A careful outline of what the specification is to treat should be made 
before any of the actual writing is begun; and inasmuch as the scheme 
has been developed on the drawings, and the only object of the specifi¬ 
cation is to supplement these, a most careful study of the drawings 
should be made, keeping in mind the question of conditions and 
materials. Notes should be taken of the different classes of subjects 
which will supply the headings for the specification; and very largely 
on the arrangement and completeness of these notes will depend the 
success of the specification, which should never be begun until the 
last note is taken and the whole arranged in proper sequence. 

With the completed scheme in mind, the site is visited and studied 
as carefully as were the drawings. It is found that a fence is necessary 
to prevent careless teamsters driving over the adjoining property. 
The curb and sidewalk have been placed under the direction of the 
city authorities, and must be carefully protected. There is a large 
tree on the lot, which, with two in the street, must be saved. In 
matters of this kind it is useless to stipulate that the contractor is 
to be responsible for any damage to the tree, and then leave it unpro¬ 
tected. After some teamster has damaged it, there is nothing the 
contractor can do to put it back or to pay for the damage. A definite 
protection should be included in the contract work. There will be 
little use to try to preserve sod or shrubs. When the work is com¬ 
pleted, it will usually be found that the grades are changed just enough 
to destroy the sod, and the shrubs had better be located elsewhere. 
All the room on the lot will be valuable to the contractor for working 


212 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


7 


space and piling material, which point he will not fail to see in making 
his bid; or—to put it otherwise—if he is confined to narrow quarters 
and required to protect the grass and shrubs, he will add a round 
figure for the additional work and inconvenience. 

The city authorities must be consulted relative to the amount of 
roadway which may be used, the guards they will require in the way 
of barricades, temporary sidewalks, and red lights at night. 

The question of where the sewer and the water main are to be 
tapped must be settled; and it is usually better to have both connec¬ 
tions made under a special contract before any work is done under 
the general contract, as the sewer will possibly be needed to keep 
storm water from the excavated space, and water will be needed at 
once for masonry work. If the street has been paved, it is probable 
that both sewer and water main have been brought to the curb. 

It will be of advantage, if, at this point, the owner will have three 
or four small test-holes dug. Borings are of doubtful value; and 
often, in uncertain soil, a great additional expense is entailed after 
the award of the contract, on account of necessary substructure work. 
Often clauses are inserted in the specifications, requiring the con¬ 
tractor to be responsible for any bad spots found, and to do all neces¬ 
sary work to make them good, so that test-pits are considered unneces¬ 
sary. Since, however, under such conditions, the contractor will 
always figure for the worst, and the owner pays for it, it is better to 
know just the kind of bottom you are to have for the building. In 
digging these pits, the knowledge of the various kinds of soils to be 
encountered will be of value. The specification writer can with 
certainty know how much good material can be used for filling and 
grading of the lot, and how much worthless material must be hauled 
away. If any sand is encountered, tests should be made to determine 
its value for mortar. (See later “Studies in Materials”.) This 
knowledge will have its influence on the bidders in making up their 
proposals. 

It is not here presumed that the case under consideration involves 
extensive protection of adjoining walls, or that excavation is to be 
carried below, or shoring done. Such cases are comparatively rare; 
and, as each case involves questions not of a general nature, it is 
outside the scope of a paper of this character to discuss this phase. 


213 



8 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


STUDIES IN MATERIALS 

The primary object of this paper is instruction; and there are in¬ 
troduced here certain problems carried along lines which show the 
particular qualities of the material under consideration. Special at¬ 
tention is called to the fact that these problems are not introduced 
merely to illustrate the qualities of the particular material, but to 
indicate lines of thought to be followed in considering every material. 

There are a great many things taken for granted in connection 
with building material—many old beaten paths which lead one from 
tradition to nowhere. The sooner the specification w T riter accustoms 
himself to testing everything he handles, the sooner he will be master 
of the situation. If this work is ignored, and he follows only beaten 
tracks—and the information of “Material Men”—he will be in hot 
water most of the time. 

In specifying materials, one maxim should always govern: 
Never specify a quality which you cannot demonstrate exists, or forbid 
a quality or ingredient you cannot detect. For instance, if you are 
not prepared to have a chemical analysis made of the Portland cement 
don’t say anything about sulphur or magnesia; clauses of this kind 
may sound well, but they may cause you trouble if later you cannot 
tell anything about the composition of the material. If you depend 
on the analyses as made by the manufacturers, ^ou can depend on it 
that you will never find a cement with a harmful pei °entage of either. 

The problems will be on the following subjects— Sand, Cement , 
Lumber, Roofs. 

In addition to the work along the lines laid out, the powers of ob¬ 
servation should be so cultivated that in the daily routine, wherever 
work is encountered, the eye will be ever ready to detect any phase 
of development in material. 

SAND 

Sand will be considered only in connection with cement (Port¬ 
land cement). See notes under caption, “Cement.” The province 
of sand with cement is similar to that of brick in masonry, on a 
small scale. The cement acts in the same capacity as the mortar 
surrounding the brick. If a brick could be made the size of the com¬ 
plete wall there would be no need for mortar, but as it cannot, mortar 
is required to fill thoroughly all spaces between the bricks and to 


214 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


9 


adhere to each tenaciously so as to form one solid mass. If on the 
sides of the brick should be placed thin layers of soft clay, the bond 
would be broken, inasmuch as the clay would not cling tenaciously 
to the brick and would prevent contact with the mortar; therefore, to 
obtain a good brick wall, each brick must be clean and free from 
coating of foreign material, so that the contact with the mortar will 
be complete. 

To return to sand—in the same way, each particle must be entirely 
separate from any other, and must be free from foreign coatings which 
would prevent its contact with the cement or would cause the particles 
to cling together so as to prevent the thorough coating of each particle 
with cement. The usual requirement for sand to be used with cement 
is that it shall be clean, coarse, and sharp; and that rarely should over 
three volumes of sand be used to one volume of cement. In our case, 
however, we must be more economical—we find in our pits a soft, 
fine sand, which, while it separates well, resembles ground clay 
when rubbed between the fingers. Before throwing it out as useless 
and paying a round price for sand hauled in, let us see what can be 
done with it. 

Make frames of wood screwed together which will provide 32 moulds 
for cement bricks 2 inches long, with J-inch section, by using two long 
strips |-inch square divided by J-inch divisions so as to leave 2 inches 
clear between each, all to be oiled. In these spaces we are to mould 


* 

1 

pjB 


t— Tiaiiiiil ' 1_MHiilll t—^ 



f*o 

t 


Fig. 1. Frame for Moulding Cement Test Bricks. 

our small bricks for test. (See Fig. 1.) Obtain some clean, coarse, 
sharp sand for comparison, and also some of the fine soft sand 
from the site; carefully mix (dry) enough cement with sand to form 
four bricks of each kind, first in proportions of 3 sand to 1 
cement, then of 4 sand to 1 cement, then of 5 sand to 1 cement, 
and lastly of 6 sand to 1 cement—eight batches in all, one- 
half of which will be of sand from the site, the other of im¬ 
ported sand. Each batch should be mixed with greatest thorough¬ 
ness in order that every side of every particle of sand shall 


215 
















10 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


become coated; then add just enough water to thoroughly dampen, 
and crowd the mixtures into the moulds (which should be laid on a 
smooth plank, for bottom), compressing each as much as possible. 
If water appears on top, it will indicate that too much has been used 
in mixing. Then there will be four bricks of each batch. Place on 
each an identifying mark— 

No. 1 3-1 Standard sand No. 5 3-1 Common sand 

“ 2 4-1 “ “ “ 6 4-1 “ “ 

“ 3 5-1 “ “ “ 7.5-1 “ “ 

“ 4 6-1 “ “ “ 8 6-1 

Cover with a damp cloth to prevent evaporation; and after one day, 
draw out the screws holding the forms, and put the bricks for two 
weeks in a damp place, covered with a wet cloth or in water. Obtain 
two good, smooth planks about 3 feet long by 1 foot wide; go to a 
neighboring foundry, and obtain permission to use their scales and 
a few hundred pounds of pig iron; lay dowm one plank on a perfectly 
level bed, and place the number 8 brick on their sides. (See Fig. 2.) 



Fig. 2. Method of Testing Cement Bricks for Crushing Strength. 

In order to get an even bearing it is well to place below and over 
the cement bricks one layer of soft building paper; above place the 
second plank with great care, seeing that it has a firm, even bearing 
at each of the four bricks. Carefully lay pig iron above, beginning 
at the middle, and fill each way, never loading one end before or with 
a much heavier load than the other. Carefully watch the bricks; 
note when they crack; and when they crumble, weigh the pig iron 
and note the results. 

As above, test each of the remaining seven sets of bricks. 

It is safe for ordinary dwellings to select the cheapest materials 
and mixture which will carry under such conditions 500 pounds of iron. 


216 



















CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 11 


For example, it is supposed that No. 3 sample, made up of 5 parts 
coarse sand to 1 part cement, carries the same load as No. 6 (4 parts 
sand from the site to 1 part cement). If it costs $1.50 for one cubic- 
yard of coarse sand, and 50 cents a yard to haul the sand away from 
the excavation, the coarse sand costs us for use $2.00 a cubic yard, 
or 7.4 cents a cubic foot. With cement at $2.00 a barrel, we have: 


Cost of 5 cubic feet of sand. 37 cts. 

Cost of 1 cubic foot of cement. 67 cts. 

Cost of 5* cubic feet of mortar.$1.04 

or. 20 f cts. a cubic foot. 


Using sand from the site in mixture No. 6 (4 sand to 1 cement), 
we have the cost per cubic foot as follows: 

Cost of 4 cubic feet of sand.Nothing 

Cost of 1 cubic foot of cement. 67 cts. 

Cost of 4 cubic feet of mortar.$0.67 

or. 16 J cts. a cubic foot. 


It will thus be seen that it is cheaper to use the 4 to 1 mixture 
and the poorer sand from the site, than to haul it away, bring in 
other sand, and use less cement. If, on the other hand, it is found 
that it will require No. 5 to equal No. 3, it will be cheaper to haul 
away the excavated sand and haul in good sand. 

Before breaking the bricks, they should be very carefully 
examined as to texture and firmness. Scratching with the finger-nail 
will show the general quality to the student after a short experience, 
so that experiment with weights is unnecessary after the student 
has become familiar with the appearance of good mortar. 

After the bricks are broken, examine the fractures, and observe 
with a glass how well the spaces between the particles of sand are 
filled. Generally the results will be about in this order: 

No. 1 will show much greater strength than the corresponding 
No. 5. No. 2 and No. 6 will show less difference. Possibly No. 3 
will break under less weight than No. 7; while No. 4 will go to pieces 
much before No. 8. The reason for this is readily detected under a 
glass. The imported coarse sand requires much more cement to 
fill the spaces. In No. 1 they are all filled; while in No. 4 there are 

♦Note.—W hen sand and cement are mixed in proper proportions, the bulk of the 
mixture is not greater than the bulk of the sand, as the cement only fills the voids or 
spaces between the particles of sand, just as there can be poured into a full measure of 
shot 20 per cent of water without overflowing the measure. 


217 














12 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


large voids, which do not occur to such an extent in Nos. 7 and 8; 
the sand being finer allows smaller voids. Observe that the increase 
in the number of voids or small holes in the mass weakens the mixture. 

Now try one other experiment. Get two forms from which 4- 
inch cubes can be made; make a mixture of possibly 4 fine sand to 
1 cement; mix one with a large amount of water, as is usually seen in 
ordinary work; and from this form a 4-inch cube. Mix for the other 
cube the same proportion, but with just enough water to change 
throughout the color of the m&ss. Crowd the mixtures into the form, 
both cubes to be compressed as much as possible; set the cubes aside, 
covered with a wet cloth for a week; then split with a cold chisel, 
and observe. The interior make-up of that mixed with a larger 
amount of water, is full of voids; that mixed with little water is com¬ 
pact. 

The question of sand is treated, as later the question of roofs 
will be, in a great deal of home-made detail, not only to get at the 
question of sand and roofs, but to illustrate how, with materials that 
are always at hand, results of great practical value may be obtained. 

CEMENT 

There is probably no other building material on which so much 
has been written within the last ten years; and there will be no 
attempt here to discuss the question excepc from an extremely prac¬ 
tical standpoint. All things considered, Portland cement at 
$2.00 a barrel net is the most economical material to be used 
in general masonry. Lime is much cheaper, but of very doubtful 
value as generally used. The English, Scotch, and French use lime 
with great success; but it is always slaked in pits for at least three 
months prior to use, and is treated and worked so as to make it 
valuable for mortar, while in this country it is used after such crude 
treatment that it cannot be considered a material suitable for good 
work. Therefore lime in any form will not be further considered for 
masonry work. 

There are now three classes of Portland cement on sale in this 
country. By far the largest class is that ground from an artificial 
clinker. Second are what is known as “slag” cements, ground largely 
from furnace slag. While in many of the second class the sulphur 
has been so far extracted as to make them identical in chemical 


218 





























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HOUSE OF MR. MAX FERNEKES, AT BROOKDALE, WIS., EIGHT MILES FROM MILWAUKEE 

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CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


13 


analysis with those of the first class, and of great value in general 
masonry, it is wiser to avoid their use where surfaces are exposed to 
wear, as in sidewalks, steps, etc. Unless the work is of minor impor¬ 
tance they should not be used unless such chemical test (independent 
of tests made by the manufacturers) can be obtained as will show 
that the sulphur therein is below 2 per cent. 

The third class is one imported from Belgium under various 
brands carrying English names, such as “Eagle,” “Star,” etc., the 
packages, however, showing the place of manufacture. These 
cements are generally coarse and of low grade—possibly the factory’s 
second grade, on which the manufacturer does not care to put his 
regular brand. 

English cement is practically out of the market. 

A few brands of German remain, like the “Dykerhoff,” which 
commands a high price and for which there is a limited demand from 
users who believe there are no other brands from which quite as good 
results can be obtained. For our purposes, however, the second and 
third classes need not be considered; the range in No. 1 is wide, and 
little if anything is gained in price in using Nos. 2 and 3. 

On important work, tests should be made to determine the fine¬ 
ness of grinding, specific gravity, time of initial and final set, sound¬ 
ness, the proportion of silica to lime, and the amount of sulphur and 
magnesia. Tests are also made of tensile strength; but as this is a 
quality never required of cement, and this test only indirectly bears 
on other necessary qualities; and as the presence of matter which is 
apt to cause final disintegration, tends often—in the early stages 
of use—to increase the tensile strength, such tests should be in no 
way relied on. 

In this paper, only three tests which it is possible for the student 
to make with appliances easily obtained, will be considered. 

Fineness. What is known as a 100-mesh sieve—that is, a sieve 
with 100 spaces to an inch—should be obtained. Any first-class 
hardware store can furnish the wire either from stock or on order 
and a home-made sieve can be constructed. A small quantity of 
cement should be weighed and most carefully sifted; 90 per cent 
of the material should pass through the sieve. By referring to state¬ 
ments relative to cement, under “Sand,” the student will understand 
that extreme fineness is required in order that the cement may fit in 


210 



14 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


and completely fill any voids which may exist between the particles 
of sand. 

Initial Set. The time for the initial set is determined approxi¬ 
mately as follows: 

Mix a small amount of neat cement (that is, clear cement without 
sand) with water, to the consistency of stiff mortar; and observe 
the time it takes to set hard enough to prevent an indentation being 
made by a wire about 6 inches long and of y^-inch diameter loaded 
with a J-pound ball on top, when set thereon. Such time should 
not be less than 30 minutes. 

It is unwise to use cement which sets at once or in such short 
time that it is inconvenient to place it before such set occurs. Cement 
fresh from the works often takes its first set quickly; but after it has 
attained an age of two or three months before being used, is all right. 
Therefore, never specify “fresh cement,” as none should be used 
within three months from the date of its manufacture. 

Note. It may be noted that the setting quality of cement con¬ 
sists in the 'permanent union of water with the cement. The setting 
of cement mortar is often referred to as the “drying out;” as a matter 
of fact, the water necessary for mixing the mortar never leaves it unless 
driven off by extreme heat. Take a tin can with tight cover; weigh out 
five pounds of dry cement; mix with it enough water to wet it; pack 
it in the can and thoroughly compress it. If water rises to the top— 
indicating that too much has been added—pour it off; put on the 
cover tight, weigh the whole, to determine the amount of water added; 
and set away for two weeks. Then open, and set in a warm, dry place 
for a few days so that it may be thoroughly dry, and weigh. It will 
be found that the weight is that of the original cement plus the water 
added, which still remains in the mass. Subject this to extreme heat, 
when it will be found that the water is thrown off, the cement is fine 
again, and its weight corresponds with that originally used. 

Soundness. This is one of the most important of physical tests, 
for it indicates whether there probably exist elements which will 
eventually disintegrate the mass. The action of pats should be care¬ 
fully observed; and if warping, cracking, or blotches appear, the 
material should not be used. Form on small pieces of clean glass 
four pats of cement mixed with only so much water as will turn the 
color of the cement. The pats are to be about J-inch thick in the 


220 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


15 


center, and 3 inches in diameter, tapering to the edge, which will 
be as thin as possible. After a day under a damp cloth, put two of 
the pats in water for a week, and leave two in air, and examine for 
symptoms referred to above. 

Should it be possible to test the material chemically, the follow¬ 
ing points should be observed: 

The lime should be slightly over 3 times the silica. Thus, if 
there is 20 per cent silica, the lime should run from 60 to 62 per cent; 
this is a good balance. The silica should not fall below 19 per cent, 
nor rise above 22 per cent, which is about the range of good cements 
on the market. 

More than 2 per cent of sulphur should never be allowed. The 
reason for this is that the “setting” of cement is a process in which the 
various materials combined unite chemically to form one solid mass. 
Sulphur in its various forms is an ingredient which does not work 
in harmony with the other materials; and while it does not at once 
prevent the satisfactory combination and setting of the other materials, 
yet, under conditions that are very likely to prevail, it sets up a chem¬ 
ical action tending to disintegrate the mass in time. 

Magnesia can generally be considered an ingredient which has 
no value either as sand or cement, being what is known as “inert” 
material. While 4 per cent may not injure masonry, wearing surfaces 
should not have over 3 per cent. 

The manufacturers of Portland cement have tried to eliminate 
both of these ingredients—but so far without success—at a cost which 
would make it possible to sell the cement at a profit. 

The specific gravity should not fall below 3.10, as a low specific 
gravity indicates poor burning of the clinker. These later tests, 
however, are delicate laboratory operations, and only experienced 
chemists are capable of getting satisfactory results. 

Non-staining Cements. There is a very general prejudice against 
the use of the ordinary Portland cement for setting limestone, sand¬ 
stone, and marble, the theory being that the moisture from the mixture, 
in getting away, travels through the stone, carrying with it certain stain¬ 
ing matter, which is either deposited on the surface or unites chemically 
with ingredients in the air to stain the face. Thus there have come 
to be used certain materials of much less structural value than the 
Portland cement. These are called non-staining cements, and are 


221 



16 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


sold at a high price. There are also on the market many materials 
intended to be put on the back of stone, which the manufacturers 
claim will prevent the passage of moisture and staining matter. 
While it can easily be demonstrated that water containing cement 
running over the face of soft stones does leave distinct traces, it is a 
different thing to show that such stone or marble can be stained by 
materials in the joints or on the back. It is well, before any amount 
of money is spent, to experiment in producing the stain on the stone 
used with the ordinary cement. 

A small box can be filled with soft mortar, and a piece of stone 
or marble laid therein so that the top surface is J inch above the 
mortar. Then, by tacking a piece of waterproof paper to the box 
sides, and cutting a hole somewhat smaller than the upper face of 
the stone or marble sample used, and by weights bringing the inner 
edge of the paper to the stone so that practically no moisture can pass 
except through the sample and off from the exposed surface, the results 
of the so-called staining qualities of ordinary cement can be observed. 

LUMBER FOR CONSTRUCTION AND FINISH 

Local conditions affect lumber very much. While the great 
lumber interests formulate and publish schedules of grades, the user 
cannot, from their designations and descriptions of grades alone, 
make an economical selection. The designations “first ” or “best 
quality,” “without imperfections,” etc., inserted in specifications 
to describe the quality desired, tend to get all concerned into trouble 
on account of the various meanings put on these terms. 

Some markets are well supplied with good spruce framing lum¬ 
ber, while an adjoining section will have no spruce, but good, rough 
pine or hemlock. The same differences will be found relative to 
finishing lumber. The student should visit each lumber yard; look 
over the stocks; find the materials in that market, how they are graded, 
so that he can in specifications state just what imperfections can be 
allowed in framing timber, boards, or finishing lumber, always bearing 
in mind that there is no material in existence which is free from 
imperfections. By observing the imperfections and stating clearly 
what will be allowed and what will not, he can avoid very many un¬ 
pleasant misunderstandings, with the owner especially, and also with 
the builder. 


222 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


17 


Lumber which has the largest number of good qualities is the 
most expensive; therefore, for each portion of the work, material 
should be required having only the particular qualities required for 
the station. 

Since, in the case of lumber, the questions of grade, quality, etc., 
can be determined by observation rather than by such experiments 
as are indicated for cement or sand, these matters will not be further 
treated here; but in the following specifications, there will be illus¬ 
trated what consideration should be given generally to lumber grades, 
quality, and finishes. 

ROOFS 

In the previous examples or problems, attention has been given 
to putting the student in line of thinking in materials. Under this 
heading, consideration will be given to the combination of materials 
in a roof covering, partly because a good roof is one of the prime 
necessities of a successful structure, and also because, in a brief study 
of one type of roof of which a model can easily be constructed, the 
elements of how to think in construction, within the province of the 
specification can be clearly illustrated. The particular covering 
considered is canvas. Undoubtedly each student is familiar with the 
use of canvas, as a deck covering for steamships, sailing vessels, 
etc., down to the small duck-boat completely constructed of canvas; 
but it is possible that few have ever considered the various steps 
necessary to make it available for water and wear-resisting uses. 

Canvas is a material which, in its natural condition, is far from 
waterproof, and is one of the materials most easily and quickly 
destroyed bv mildew. Its one original desirable quality is its extreme 
strength and toughness. Therefore there must be incorporated 
with this tough material, the properties of resisting the passage of 
water and the ravages of decay. Take a good sample of 10-oz. 
duck; put it on a board, and strike a dozen times in one place; take 
up, rub in the hands, and observe how little damage has been done to 
the texture. 

Build up of J-inch matched flooring dressed on the upper side, 
a board about 3 feet square, putting 2 by 4-inch cleats on the under 
side. These cleats represent the rafters, the |-inch stuff the roof 
boards. Obtain from different stores samples of 10-oz. duck, and 


223 



18 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


mark each for identification, making a schedule in which the price 
of each is noted. Cut all samples to exactly the same size; and, after 
drying thoroughly to drive off all moisture, get them weighed by a 
druggist on very accurate scales, and on the schedule note the weight 
of each piece. Soak and wash each thoroughly, rubbing so as to 
remove all size or filling soluble in water. After thoroughly drying, 
have each carefully weighed again, and note the weights on the 
schedule. From this schedule can easily be determined, which is the 
best for the money. It may be found, for example, after soaking 
out all soluble matter, that the material which costs 18 cents a yard 
is considerably cheaper than that costing 17 cents. 

A choice having been made, buy a yard; and, when thoroughly 
dry, secure it with ordinary tacks about f-inch long, spaced 
one inch apart, to the boards prepared, stretching it as much 
as possible so that it will be tight and flat. Wet it thoroughly 
and observe that wetting has a tendency to shrink it; but, as it 
cannot shrink on account of being securely nailed to the board, 
each thread is drawn very tight and made smaller. By exam¬ 
ining closely, it will be seen that the spaces between the threads 
are increased and that water will run through as through a sieve. 
When in this condition, put on a good coat of white lead and oil 
paint (this is about the only material which should be painted wet), 
and observe that a large amount of paint is taken up; in fact, through 
the openings between the threads, the paint goes, reaching and cover¬ 
ing the underside of the cotton. The water will not unite with the 
paint, and passes off before the paint dries, allowing the threads to 
swell into the soft paint, so that when the paint is dry the fabric is 
practically embedded in paint, with less on the upper surface than 
anywhere else. Two more coats on top furnish the necessaxy pro¬ 
tection. This treatment protects the canvas from mildew and makes 
it waterproof; the original fabric furnishes the strength. 

After the paint is dry, subject the sample to the harshest of 
treatment. Grind with the heel, drop bricks, etc., to see just how 
much it will resist; if not successful in making a hole, use a hatchet, 
patch the hole so made by tacking over it a piece of duck of sufficient 
size to cover it; and wet it, paint it, etc., as before. When dry, place 
the boards level, nail down 1-inch strips around the edge, laid in white 
lead, and cover with one inch of water. Let this stand for forty- 


224 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


19 


eight hours. Now cut up the duck, and see if any leaks exist; if so, 
carefully examine the covering to determine exactly the cause. Next, 
roll the duck loosely, and put away for two weeks in a dark, damp 
place, and then examine for mildew. 

It is not the intention of the above problem merely to explain 
how a canvas roof is made, but to set the student to thinking about 
roofs. A shingle roof, or a tar-and-gravel roof, or a slate roof, differs 
from the above only in the manner in which it accomplishes the same 
ends; and all other styles should be observed and studied along similar 
lines, so that the proper material will be used in each of the different 
varieties of buildings. 

USE OF WORDS AND GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 

It should be the object of every specification writer to have the 
words as exact in the expression of requirements relative to materials 
as are the drawings in showing their forms; and no more words should 
be used than are absolutely necessary to indicate the full meaning. 
Frequently, after completing the specification, it is gone over to make 
additions. It is far better to go over it to see how much can be cut out 
—which operation will often astonish the writer by showing how 
many useless words and duplicate requirements have been inserted 
in the original. 

Generally speaking, adjectives and adverbs and all general 
description should be dispensed with. A requirement that work shall 
be finished “in the best manner” means very little. A reasonable 
interpretation of “best” work for a house costing $1,500.00, would 
be entirely unsuitable for a house costing $15,000.00; and as all 
through the scale the meaning varies, it will be evident that the con¬ 
tractor influenced by his intent to make a profit, and the owner 
influenced by his desire to get his money’s worth, will have very 
widely separated views relative to what the “best” is; and the architect 
is apt to get the ill-will of both in attempting to, decide the question. 

The fact is that the term “best” is open to a great variety of 
interpretations. If an oak moulded panel is to be finished in the 
“best” manner, we think of it as constructed with perfect symmetry 
of outline, thoroughly smoothed, with all machine marks removed, 
and filled so as to change the texture cf the surface, coated and 
polished with four or five coats of varnish. If, on the other hand, 


225 



20 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


a carved panel is described as finished in the best manner, we conceive 
something quite the reverse. Although it is of oak and intended for 
the same room, it must lack the machine symmetry, and must have a 
freedom in the carving in which each member shows independence 
of form; the tool marks should remain; and under no circumstances 
should the work be smoothed off with sandpaper or have a rubbed 
finish. These differences of meaning in the same word or term are 
not understood generally; and the workmen, contractors, and owners 
get hopelessly at odds. 

In mentioning materials, they should be treated in classes, with 
no attempt to designate where each should be used (this designation 
is the province of the drawings). If an attempt is made to designate 
where materials are to go, and for any reason every single point is not 
covered in making such designations in the specifications, such 
omission is taken as an excuse by the contractor for an extra. 

It is sometimes held that the specification should be considered 
as a sort of index of all the labor and materials required in the struc¬ 
ture, and that any items not mentioned in this index cannot be 
required. This feature, however, is the province of the “Bill of 
Quantities,” which in this country is always prepared by the contractor 
for his own use, and not by the architect. The contractor makes up 
the bill of quantities from the drawings and specifications which latter, 
together show the shape, size, and quality, but which should never 
attempt to state the quantity in detail. 

There are certain items that cannot be shown on the drawings 
or required by the specification, which must be covered in a general 
way—such as nails and screws; but when something more than the 
ordinary practice is needed, this should be mentioned. Thus, floor 
fining should be secured by lOd nails not over 3 inches apart over 
each joist. Matched sheathing should have two 8d nails to each 
board, over each stud. Window stops should be secured by round- 
headed blued screws set not over 10 inches apart. While for such 
items as the finished floor, casings, etc., there is no necessity for 
specifying the number or size of nails, it should be stated that they are 
to be so placed that the heads will be invisible in natural finished 
work, and puttied in painted work. 

However many general clauses may be inserted requiring con¬ 
tractors to do and provide work and materials necessary for unfore- 


226 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


21 


seen exigencies; it may be stated as a general and almost universal 
rule, that, when the work and materials are not clearly set forth, the 
owner has to pay the bill. 

Where work is to be divided so that a contract is let for the 
masonry, carpentry, plumbing, and heating to separate contractors, 
the lines in which they are to co-operate must be most clearly drawn, 
and the special provinces of each defined. 

If contract is to be awarded to one person who is to furnish the 
structure complete, then the matter of what work is to be done by this 
or that sub-contractor should be omitted entirely. The general 
contractor must be held responsible for results, and there should be 
no dictation as to which of his sub-contractors should do certain 
parts; nor is it the business of the architect or the owner to dictate 
how the different sub-contractors shall co-operate. If results are 
unsatisfactory from any reason, the contractor will always urge the 
plausible excuse that his affairs in the management of the work were 
so interfered with that he was unable to do the work as he wished 
or agreed. 


ELECTRIC WIRING 

The item of Electric Wiring, while entirely within the province 
of the architect to lay out, is of such a mechanical nature that it is 
rarely advisable to include it in the general specification. Few general 
rules outside of a set adopted by the National Board of Fire Under¬ 
writers—called the “National Electric Code”—can be formulated. 

The arrangement, location, and sizes of wires are problems of 
delicate adjustment in order to obviate danger from fire, to prevent 
loss of power, and to obtain a perfectly satisfactory service at all 
points under the maximum load, and yet keep the amount of material 
down so as not to involve unnecessary expense. 

Expensive instruments are necessary for the testing of the system 
when complete, and a considerable experience is needed even for 
stating in a specification what tests are to be applied in each specific 
case. Therefore it is not deemed best to discuss the* matter further 
here, except to state that, for work such as that under consideration, 
the services of an engineer in the employ of the Electric Light Com¬ 
pany which is to furnish the energy can generally be obtained to lay 
out the system and test the completed work. 


227 



22 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


In studying the following outline specification, it is suggested 
that many trade papers and the general magazines advertise appli¬ 
ances used in building; and a [postal-card request to the advertisers 
will bring very useful information about the product advertised. In 
these lines, are cement, concrete work, stone, brick, paints, varnishes, 
plastering material, plumbing goods, and heating goods. 

Catalogues of the two last are particularly to be obtained. If 
the influence of any such literature is such that the student finds 
himself impressed with the fact that the material or system under 
consideration is the best of anything in that line, then special 
attention should be given to the literature of other materials or systems 
which are used for the same purpose, until he finds some which he 
is satisfied are equal to it in every particular. The man who has only 
one material he can use, or one way of accomplishing a certain object, 
is sure to be either deficient in information or unduly influenced, for 
there is no one material, or one way of doing anything, that is best 
in all respects. 

The student should also have a copy of some of the many hand¬ 
books of general information relative to materials. Of these, probably 
“Trau twine” will be found the most useful; for, while it is not so 
popular as some, it is a high authority, and in it will be found notes 
on every variety of material and construction. 

SPECIFICATIONS* 

For a Residence Building to be erected for 

JOHN DOE 

AT THE CORNER OF A AVENUE AND B" STREET, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 

Richard Roc, Architect 

GENERAL CONDITIONS 

Contract Drawings. The drawings which will with this specifi¬ 
cation form the basis of an agreement for the erection and completion 
of a residence for John Doe, to be erected at the corner of A Avenue 
and B Street, are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, to a scale of J inch to 
the foot; and details, 20, 21, 22, 23, to a scale of 1J inches; and all 

* Note.— These “Specifications” cover the following pages of text up to and includ¬ 
ing page 44. 


228 





CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


23 


materials and work necessary to complete the structure indicated, 
* are to be furnished and done by the Contractor. 

Detail Drawings. Full-sized details and models will be furnished 
as the work progresses, and no work requiring them is to be done 
before their delivery. In their preparation, minor modifications will 
be made which do not materially affect the cost of execution; and 
they will be delivered to the Contractor within the following periods 
after the award of the contract: those which affect the construction 
of exterior walls, cornice, roof, or internal framing, six weeks; those 
for interior finish, four months; those for carving on material in place, 
six months. 

Changes. No alterations shall be made involving change in 
cost, unless ordered by the Architect in writing, setting forth fully 
the nature and extent of the change, the terms and conditions under 
which it is to be made, to which the assent of both Owner and Con¬ 
tractor is to be attached. 

The Architect will, during the progress of the work, give oral 
directions relative thereto; but such directions will never be considered 
as authorizing changes. 

Accepted and Rejected Materials. The decision of the Architect 
will be final relative to the work or materials furnished, and that 
rejected is to be removed promptly from the site. It will be under¬ 
stood, however, that every item furnished in place in the building 
which is covered by a payment, is considered as accepted, and will 
not be later rejected unless defects develop which were not visible 
prior to the payment; and when, for such cause, material is rejected, 
the entire expense incident to replacing the material is to be borne 
by the Contractor. 

Responsibility of Contractor. The Contractor is to be entirely 
responsible for producing the finished work in place; and in carrying 
it out, he is to furnish all tools and temporary appliances to accom¬ 
plish the contract requirements, and also heat, so that after the first 
plaster coat is begun no part of the building shall be allowed to have 
a temperature lower than 40° F. If plastering is done in hot, dry 
weather, he is to protect the building with such temporary closures 
as will prevent injury from too rapid evaporation. He is to be 
responsible for the protection, not only of all material delivered on 
the site, but also of all materials in place, until the final accept- 


229 



24 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


ance of the building as evidenced by the final payment on the contract 
and the delivery of the structure to the Owner. As this responsi¬ 
bility extends to loss by fire, he is to keep the building fully insured 
in Stock Insurance Companies, the loss, if any, payable to the owner 
as his interest may appear; and the total amount of such insurance 
shall never be less than a sum 20 per cent higher than the total amount 
of the payments made; and prior to each payment, the Contractor 
shall deliver to the Owner such policies. The Contractor shall, 
if required by the Owner four days prior to the time any payment is 
due, produce evidence satisfactory to the Owner that such settle¬ 
ments have been made as will clear the premises from the liability 
of liens on account of either labor or materials furnished; and in 
case the Contractor fails to produce such evidence, the Owner is 
not under any obligations to make the payment until his demand 
is complied with. If the demand is not made by the Owner four days 
prior to the day any payment is due, the Contractor will not be 
obliged to furnish evidence for the payment then coming due; but 
the right to demand the evidence before any subsequent payment 
is made will continue to exist, so that the Owner may demand such 
evidence prior to any future payment. 

City Laws. The Contractor, without the intervention of either 
Owner or Architect, is to comply with all City Ordinances for the 
regulation of building on private property and the temporary use of 
highways beyond the building lines. 

Employer’s Liability Insurance. Should any person either 
employed by him or not, or any property, be injured in any of the 
operations in connection with the building or through his careless¬ 
ness or that of any of his employees, he is to be responsible therefor; 
and therefore he is to carry at all times Employers’ Liability Insur¬ 
ance which will cover up to $5,000.00 the damage to any one person, 
either of the public or of those in his employ. 

Ladders and Scaffold. The Contractor is to maintain at all 
times such ladders and scaffolding as will afford the Owner or 
Architect access to all portions of the work. 

Samples. As soon as possible after the award of the contract 
the Contractor is to deliver on the site samples of all materials required 
in connection therewith. Such samples are to indicate the range 
he proposes to use, by one of the poorest quality and one of the best 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


25 


in each class, with the understanding that the material furnished 
is to run between the two so that the average of the material furnished 
will be practically the average between the two samples. 

The Architect will pass on these samples; and after acceptance 
by him, they will be kept for guidance in passing on the material when 
delivered. If any of the samples, in the opinion of the Architect, 
are not in accord with the contract requirements, he will reject such 
in writing, setting forth fully his reasons, and the Contractor is to 
furnish additional samples in lieu of those rejected, until materials 
suitable in the judgment of the Architect are submitted. In execut¬ 
ing the work, the poorer materials are to be placed in the minor 
portions of the work as selected by the Architect. 

Contractor’s Foreman. The Contractor is to have a repre¬ 
sentative fully empowered to act in all cases for him on the site when¬ 
ever any work is in progress or material being delivered; and neither 
the Owner nor the Architect will give to anyone, except such repre¬ 
sentative, any directions or instructions. Should such representative 
not give proper attention to such directions or instructions, such 
neglect will be sufficient cause for refusal on the part of the Owner 
to make further payments until the settlement of the questions 
involved. 

The protection by the Contractor, of trees, sidewalk, curb, 
adjoining property, etc., as required hereinafter, will not relieve 
the Contractor from responsibility for any injury which may occur 
to such protected items on account of the building operations. 

The Drawings. It is the intention that the general scheme for 
the work shall be illustrated by the drawings, on which all dimensions 
and sizes are given. When features or details are evidently of a 
similar nature to those already shown, they will not be carried out 
in detail; but in all such cases the Contractor will Complete the 
work in accordance with the evident intent of the drawings. 

The materials are in general designated; and when the drawings 
are competent to show fully what is required, it will not be within 
the province of the specification, or details to be prepared later, to 
make further reference thereto. 

The Specification. It is the intention that this specification 
shall cover those material points only which the drawings are not 
competent to cover; and the fact that certain items are indicated 


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26 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


on the drawings, and not mentioned herein, will not relieve the 
Contractor from furnishing them. It is the intention that the draw¬ 
ings and this specification shall so co-operate that all matters in 
connection with the proposed structure necessary for making accurate 
estimates for the completion of the building, shall be fully set forth. 
There are, however, certain operations and materials evidently 
necessary for the construction; and unless these are of unusual 
nature, no mention thereof will be made, but such fact will not relieve 
the Contractor from his obligation to provide for all such items. 

The Architect. The Architect is the technical adviser for the 
Owner, and will have the general direction and oversight of the 
building operations, with the right conceded by both Owner and 
Contractor to accept or reject finally materials or workmanship, to 
decide the amount due at each payment period, and to determine 
when the Contractor has complied with the conditions of his agree¬ 
ment. 

He is not to be responsible for such items as whether or not 
liability for liens exists, or for such other matters of business detail 
as do not require the technical training for architectural practice. 

As the Architect must depend on the clear requirements of the 
drawings and specifications for his authority in exercising his duties, 
it is desirable that all questions which may arise be fully settled 
therein, so far as practicable, before the submission of bids. There¬ 
fore all parties who propose to submit bids should, in writing, call 
attention to any points which in their judgment are not fully explain¬ 
ed by the drawings and specifications, at least six days before that 
set for receipt of proposals; and such questions, with the replies 
thereto, will be forwarded to each prospective bidder; and the failure 
of any bidder to ask for such supplementary information will be 
construed, after the award of the contract, as barring him from 
demurring from any ruling which in the opinion of the Architect is 
justified by the contract requirements. In any questions of a 
technical character which may arise between the Owner and Con¬ 
tractor, the Owner will be governed by the decision of the Architect. 

Payments. Before beginning the work, the Contractor, if he 
so desires, can prepare for the Architect a statement showing the 
order in which he will proceed with the construction of the building- 
and a schedule of the quantities of all items entering into the work, 


232 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


27 


with the value of each in place—the total of such values to be the 
contract price. If, in the judgment of the Architect, this schedule 
is perfectly fair, it will be adopted as a basis of the monthly estimate 
of the value of the work satisfactorily in place; and on he 3rd 
day of each month, the Owner will pay on the contract price 90 per 
cent of the value of the materials satisfactorily in place on the 1st, 
as determined by the schedule; but in these estimates, no account 
will, under any circumstances, be taken of the value of materials not 
finally incorporated in the building. 

If, however, the Contractor does not elect to prepare such a 
schedule, or prepares a schedule evidently not fair to the Owner, 
then the Owner will pay to the Contractor on the 3rd of each month 
90 per cent of the value of the materials satisfactorily in place, as 
determined by the Architect’s estimate; and in determining the value, 
the Architect is to be governed by the total contract price, so that 
at all times there will be reserved by the Owner sufficient funds to 
complete the building, in case of default on the part of the Con¬ 
tractor, at usual market rates, and in addition 10 per cent. 

Time. The time limit for the completion of the work will be 
nine months from the date of award of contract; and it will be a 
condition of the contract, that there will be deducted from the final 
payment the sum of fifteen dollars as liquidated damages for each 
day’s delay after the expiration of such period, until the final accept¬ 
ance of the work by the Architect and its delivery to the Owner. 

The Site. Put a tight board fence 5 feet high, with three 2-inch 
by 4-i'nch rails, and with 4-inch by 4-inch posts set 6 feet on centers 
which will protect adjoining property from encroachments during 
building operations. 

On the street side, and in front of the spot to be occupied by 
the building on the Avenue, enclose such portion of the roadway 
as is permitted by the City building ordinance to be used in building 
operations, with such fence—also place such walks—as are required 
by such ordinance. 

On the site is one oak tree, and in the street two elm trees. 
These are to be protected by tree boxes of 2-inch plank and 2-inch 
by 4-inch cleats, with such holes cut on sides as will permit a full 
circulation of air about the trunk; and under no circumstances are 


233 



28 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


any guy ropes to be secured to, or allowed to interfere with, any 
portion of the trees. 

There will be no attempt to save any of the sod or shrubs now 
on the site, and the Contractor will be allowed all the space for piling 
material, etc. 

Excavation. Four test-pits have been dug to a point 1 foot 
below the bottom of all footings; and bidders should visit the site 
and examine the conditions. The black soil which constitutes the 
top stratum is all to be piled on the lot wherever the Contractor 
desires, so long as it is not against the oak tree. Below the black 
soil is a stratum of sand which is satisfactory for concrete and cement 
mortar; below this is coarse gravel which may be used for concrete, 
provided all stones which will not pass through a 2-inch ring are 
cracked to such size. Any other material to be taken from the exca¬ 
vation is worthless, and must be hauled away. 

The excavation is to be carried on so that different strata will 
be kept in separate piles. Any materials mixed so as to make it 
undesirable in the opinion of the Architect to use them for the pur¬ 
poses above designated, are to be hauled away. 

The curbstone in place is to be protected so that there will be 
no settlement or shifting before the supporting wall is completed, 
by sheet piling driven down just back of the inside of curb line. 

The other sides of the excavations will be sloped enough to 
prevent caving. 

The excavation will not go below the party wall of adjoining 
building. 

All excavation for footings must be complete before any footings 
are placed. 

Backfilling. After all foundation walls are completed and 
thoroughly set, backfilling is to be done with sand or gravel. 

Sewer and Water Connections. The sewer and water have 
already been brought on to the site. The sewer terminates at a 
brick manhole, 3 feet 6 inches inside diameter, with iron cover at 
grade about 5 feet from the side line of the building; and temporary 
connections with this manhole are to be made, so that there shall be 
at no time any standing water in the excavation, should it develop 
that the gravel is a water-bearing stratum. 


















• 







































































































■ .:-. 



HI 

w^i 

• m | 


HOUSE OF MR. MAX FERNEKES, AT BROOKDALE, WIS 

Fernekes & Cramer, Architects, Milwaukee, Wis. 

For Plans, Interiors, etc., See Pages 206, 218, and 250. 

































HOUSE OF MR. MAX FERNEKES, AT BROOKDALE, WIS 

Fernekes & Cramer, Architects, Milwaukee, Wis. 

For Plans, Interiors, etc., See Pages 206, 218, and 250. 



































































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


29 


The water connections will be encountered in making the wall 
at the curb line, about 4 feet below grade. 

MASONRY MATERIALS 

Cement. All cement required is to be Portland cement of such 
fineness that 90 per cent will pass through a 100-mesh sieve. The 
initial set shall be in not less than 30 minutes; and pats of neat 
cement about 3 inches in diameter and half an inch thick in center, 
worked off to a thin edge, exposed in air or immersed in water for 
seven days, after the cement has set sufficiently not to be disintegrat¬ 
ed by water, shall show no discoloration, warping, checks, or signs of 
disintegration. 

Sand. The sand shown to be on the site by the test-pits is of 
sufficiently good quality for all masonry mortar except wearing 
surface of pavements, steps, etc. Should there not be enough thus 
obtained, that brought in must be as dean and sharp as that found 
in excavating. 

The sand for all wearing surfaces (down at least J inch), such as 
walks, steps, and cellar and area floors, is to be crushed granite, 
ranging from the finest material to that which will pass a 30-mesh 
sieve. 

Broken Stone. The gravel stratum may be used for concrete 
aggregate, provided the sand and all stone too large to pass a 2-inch 
ring are screened out. The sand may be used with other sand on 
the site, and the stone screened out be broken to size required; the 
other material needed will be equal to that obtained on the site, and 
the Contractor will not dig holes below the finished grade lines to 
obtain material. 

Brick. All common brick are to be run of the kiln, excluding 
all salmon brick which will take up during one hour’s immersion 
in water as much as 18 per cent of their weight in water. As delivered, 
the hardest are to be kept in piles for use in backing exterior walk 
and flues; the softer are to be put in interior walls. 

All facing brick are to be light color, of rough face texture, 
evenness of tone or burning will not be required; and the light and 
dark tones will be laid together, with no attempt to keep the same 
tones together; but no brick will be allowed which is soft enough 


235 



30 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


to absorb over 12 per cent of its weight in water. The facing brick 
are to have full, square edges free from chipped corners. 

Granite. All granite (the exterior wall below water table, and 
front steps and buttresses, are to be of granite) is to be of light color, 
free from black knots, and is to be finished 4-cut work. The joints are 
to be f inch wide, and tooled back full for 1 inch from exterior surface; 
and the stones may be as thin as economical dressing will permit. 

Soft Stone. From water table up to line of second story window¬ 
sills, all stone required is to be a light limestone or sandstone with 
a 4-bat-to-the-inch finish (consisting of 4 concave grooves to each 
inch, made either by hand or by machine), for all vertical surfaces. 
All other surfaces will be rubbed. The stone must be of an even 
texture, free from seams or streaks. Should any material used show 
in a rubbed block any grain from which the natural bed can be 
determined, it is to be set so that it will rest on its natural bed; but 
if the stone is of such character as to show no such indications, it 
will be immaterial whether it rests on its natural bed. 

The ashlar may be as thin as 4 inches, except where reveals or 
corners occur. At reveals the heads are to be the full depth; and no 
vertical joint in the face of the wall is to be nearer the reveal than 
1 foot, while all caps and sills are to be the full depth. 

Terra=cotta. Structural. The interior faces of all exterior 
brick walls are to be furred with 2-inch porous terra-cotta of such 
quality that a nail can be driven therein without splitting and be 
firmly held. 

All flues are to be lined with hard-burned non-porous flue 
linings at least § inch thick. 

Terra=cotta. Ornamental. (i Cornice and Balustrade). All 
ornamental terra-cotta is to have a color similar to the lighter tones 
of brick, with a combed surface forming about 6 ribs to one inch. 
It is to be hard-burned, with capacity to absorb not over 4 per cent 
of its weight of water after immersion for one hour. All approximately 
horizontal surfaces are to be made rough, to key the cement coat 
which it is proposed to put above. The finished pieces are to be 
straight and unwarped, and in lengths never less than 2 feet 10 inches 
for continuous members; in projecting members, all vertical joints 
must occur over bearings. All members with less than 2-feet face 
must be in one piece. The Contractor must furnish shop drawings 


236 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


31 


for approval of jointing only; no outlines are to be modified thereby, 
and such changes in the jointings may be made, within the lines 
above laid down, as in the judgment of the Architect will better 
the construction or appearance of the work. 

MASONRY CONSTRUCTION 

Concrete. The concrete work of all footings and exterior 
foundation walls below grade, will be composed of 1 part 
Portland cement, 4 parts sand, and 7 parts screened gravel or 
broken stone. In order to make these proportions efficient, it 
will be necessary, in mixing and applying the materials, to use great 
care. The Contractor, under direction of the Architect, will con¬ 
struct a cube about 18 inches square, of the mixture, to show its 
possibilities when carefully manipulated; this standard will be the 
one by which the work will be judged, and any portion of the con¬ 
crete work which falls below this standard will be condemned. The 
sand and cement must first be thoroughly mixed dry, turning over 
at least four times, if no machine is employed, so that no uncolored 
particles of sand can be detected; after which, just enough water 
is to be added to dampen the mass thoroughly. The aggregate is 
then to be mixed in, wet. 

It will be necessary to place plank forms for all footings and 
walls; and the concrete is to be placed in such forms, and thoroughly 
rammed. A smooth surface like a spade is to be forced down, 
just inside the planking, to force the aggregate back from both faces 
of the wall until clear mortar will only show. The walls of each 
portion are to be carried up the full height rapidly, and the planking 
to be so arranged that it can be removed from any part within two 
days after the placing of the concrete. Both faces of the wall are to 
be finished smooth with a trowel, the surface being so compressed as 
to make it proof against ground moisture. 

Basement Floor. After the lining of the first floor is laid, the 
basement floor is to be put in. On the base of concrete 3 inches 
thick, composed as for footings, before it has set, put a wearing 
surface \ inch thick, composed of 1 part cement to 3 parts crushed 
granite, troweled to a smooth, level surface. 

Reinforced concrete beams and slab over sidewalk coal-cellar, 
are to be composed of 1 part Portland cement, 3 parts sand, and 5 


237 



32 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


parts gravel or broken stone which will pass through a f-inch ring. 
This is to be tamped in the forms and around the reinforcing metal, 
to form a solid, compact mass. As the strength of this slab is depend¬ 
ent principally on the care in mixing the material and in placing it, 
it must be tested three weeks after it is set, by placing five layers of 
brick over the entire surface. If under this test it fails or cracks, 
it is to be removed and replaced at the Contractor's expense. 

After the completion of the building, a sidewalk in all respects 
matching that now in place is to be continued over the concrete slab, 
and the iron coal-hole cover-frame is to be built in so as to set flush 
with the surface. 

Brick Masonry. Rough brick partition walls in basement, 
and all chimneys and the backing of all exterior walls, will be laid 
and thoroughly embedded in Portland cement mortar, 1 part cement 
to 4 parts sand; and all brick are to be thoroughly drenched before 
being laid. In backing up stone work, the brick is to be so bonded 
that it can be brought up approximately level with the top of each 
stone course; and there is to be placed in every horizontal stone 
joint a sheet of No. 24 expanded metal, extending to within 1 inch 
of the face of the stone and through the full thickness of the brick 
wall. This is to be free from rust, and at once embedded in the 
mortar joints of stone and brick to form a reinforced concrete bond. 

Every fifth course of rough brick is to be of headers. 

Where rough brick walls will be exposed to view, the joints will 
be trowel-pointed and all mortar kept off the face. 

At the base of ash-pits, set doors 8 inches by 12 inches. 

At the base of chimney flues, set doors 6 inches by 8 inches. 

In each fireplace hearth, there is to be a small ash-dump, 
constructed entirely of cast iron, with cast-iron frames built in and 
anchored. 

Terra-cotta pipe thimbles are to be built in, 1 foot from the 
finished ceilings, as follows: 

1—8-inch thimble in Heater Cellar, 

1—6-inch thimble in Laundry, 

1—6-inch thimble in Kitchen. 

The fireplaces are to be built complete with fire-brick backs 
and facings, all laid flat, as the chimney is constructed. Special¬ 
shaped firebrick, with ends moulded so as to conform to the line 


238 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


33 


of the facing and bevel of the jambs, are to be used at the angles 
between facing and jambs. 

All brick below the flat arch are to be laid in fire clay 
with close joints; and in each joint a strip of No. 24 expanded metal 
is to be built, extending within \ inch of the face of the brick and 
leaving at least 4 inches to build into the mortar joint of backing. 

In the throat, put cast-iron flue-stops, with dampers which can easily 
be closed from below. 

The flat arches above are to be laid in Portland cement mortar, 
with No. 24 expanded metal extending through each joint to within 
i inch of exposed faces and sticking up 4 inches. When this is 
complete, a reinforced concrete beam is to be formed above, in which 
the brick ties are to be embedded in addition to 6 strands of No. 8 
twisted wire fencing. 

The flue linings of hard terra-cotta are to be set close; and any 
which are crooked or broken in handling will be rejected. 

Face Brick. Face brick will be used for the visible surfaces of 
the exterior brick walls and chimneys. Each course will alternate 
headers and stretchers, and the facing and backing are to be carried 
up together and of such size brick that the headers of every fifth 
course will bond. The header of all other courses may be half¬ 
brick. The joints will be approximately \ inch thick, and trowel- 
pointed as the work is laid; and all mortar must be kept off the face. 

Over the windows, flat arches are to be formed, bonded, as re¬ 
quired for the fireplaces, to the concrete beam formed back of the 
arch. 

Setting of Granite and Soft Stone. The joints are to be § inch 
thick, with expanded metal as required above therein, the mortar 
to be of the same composition as for brick. 

The contractor will be responsible for any staining of the faces 
of the stone. He will be permitted to use such brand of cement as 
he may consider safe, provided in the tests it conforms to the require¬ 
ments of Portland cement as stated under “Cement.” 

Note to Student. No. 1.—In order that the student may ascertain * 
to what extent he is grasping the situation, at this point, and before proceeding 
further with this specification, he should spend at least six hours on masonry 
work in progress in his vicinity, observing work which corresponds to that 
referred to in this outline specification. He should ask questions of such 
foremen or workmen as he is able to approach, regarding the details of con- 


239 



34 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


struction and materials used. He should see the men who furnish the material, 
and obtain from them the prices, and also find if there are different grades 
thereof. 

Under no circumstances are notes to be taken. The student is to get 
the information in mind in such a way that he will remember it. After the 
conclusion of these investigations, he should allow four days to elapse, during 
which time he is to think over the situation as observed. After the four days 
of thinking , he should write a specification not exceeding 400 words in length, 
covering some portion of the work or materials observed, and giving special 
attention to covering the most ground possible with the 400 words. 

Setting Terra-cotta—Structural. All furring terra-cotta is to be 
set in Portland cement mortar. As 1 to 4 mixture would be too short 
for the thin edges, the mortar will be 1 cement to 2\ sand; and one 
30d-spike is to be driven into the brick mortar joints, with head 
projecting 1J inches into furring joint for tie. 

Ornamental Terra-cotta. All joints are to be J inch thick; and 
the special anchors shown on the detail are to be built in. Fill 
all hollow portions with concrete formed by filling in with cement 
mortar and then crowding in broken bricks until the mortar is forced 
into every corner. 

Over all approximately horizontal surfaces, put a J-inch coat 
of Portland cement mortar, 1 part cement to 1 part sand, after cover¬ 
ing the surface with a continuous sheet of No. 24 expanded metal. 
The terra-cotta surface is to be thoroughly wet, the mortar coat 
pressed vigorously through the metal, and the surface finished smooth. 
This surface it to be protected from the sun for four days, and wet 
at such intervals as will keep it at all times moist. 

CARPENTER WORK 

Materials .—Rough Lumber. All wood which is not exposed to 
view in rooms above basement, may be of pine, spruce, or hemlock, 
sized and seasoned. 

Joists and Stringers. Joists and stair stringers must be sound, 
with no loose knots or knots over 2J inches measured the longest way 
within 3 inches of the lower or within 1 inch of the upper edge. 

Studs. Studs must be sound, with no loose knots in either edge. 

Miscellaneous framing lumber, bridging, etc., must be sound. 

There will be no wood floors in basement. Cover all joists and 
rafters with tongued and grooved pine or spruce boards f inch thick 
and not over 5 inches wide, for lining. Shakes and other imperfec- 


240 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


35 


tions will be accepted, which do not leave holes, provided the imper¬ 
fection is of such a character that it will firmly hold a nail. 

All finished floors of first and second stories will be of quartered 
white oak; and all floors above will be of edge-grain pine, all tongued 
and grooved and not over 2\ inches face, thoroughly kiln-dried, of a 
quality free from shakes. Sound knots will be allowed; also imper¬ 
fections which do not extend to within \ inch of the wearing surface. 

All miscellaneous lumber for grounds, window-frames, etc., 
may be of pine or spruce, with square edges and free from loose 
knots. 

There will be no finish in basement, except door-frames and 
doors, which will be stock pattern and paneled 1 j inches thick. 

The finishing lumber for all rooms on first floor except kitchen, 
pantries, and closets, will be of quartered white oak, with bright 
surface, and with no imperfections which appear on the face or ex¬ 
posed edges; but sound knots of any size, which are finished smooth, 
will be allowed. All other finishing lumber of first and second floors 
is to be of oak, ash, or birch, of a quality specified above, but may be 
straight-sawed. 

All finishing lumber above second floor is to be of pine, of a 
quality containing no defects which one coat of shellac and three 
coats of paint will not cover. 

All shelving in closets and pantries throughout the building, 
may be of pine or poplar, full J inch thick. 

All stair treads, rails, balusters, and risers are to be of quartered 
white oak, the treads to be 1J inches thick, all strings to be of the 
same wood as the finish of adjoining floors. 

CARPENTRY CONSTRUCTION 

All joists are to be set 1 foot 4 inches on centers with a bearing 
on all supporting walls of 4 inches. When in brick walls, the ends 
are to be beveled so that the upper edge is just on a line with the in¬ 
side face of brick wall. 

All trimmers are to be doubled, and all headers over 10 feet long 
are to be tripled. Where joists are framed together, no cutting 
is to be done; but wrought-iron hangers or stirrups with a cross- 
section of all vertical parts equal to 1 square inch of metal, are to be 

used. 


241 



36 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Every third joist in the brick wall is to be anchored thereto 
by a strap anchor containing \ square inch of metal, extending 2 
feet onto the lower edge of joist and within 4 inches of the outside 
face of wall, with end turned up 2 inches, to be spiked to the joist 
with five 30d nails to each anchor. Where joists meet over partition 
heads, they are to be spiked thereto with four 20d spikes at each 
bearing, and, when practicable, to the joist of the opposite side. All 
joists are to be cross-bridged every 8 feet of clear span, with 2 by 2-inch 
stuff, with two 12d nails in each end. 

Studs are to be 1 foot 4 inches on centers, both studs and heads 
doubled beside and over all openings; and all openings over 4 feet 
wide are to be trussed above. Each stud is to be secured with four 
12d nails at each end, and to have one line of 2 by 2-inch single 
bridging in the height of each story, this bridging to be so set in the 
center of the stud that it will be an inch back from both faces. 

The lining floors will have two 8d nails in each board over each 
bearing, one in the tongue and one about 1 inch from the groove edge. 
All lining will be so laid as to be perfectly tight, and may be laid before 
plastering. 

All sash will be of pine, If inches thick. When only single sash 
are shown, they are to be hinged with three 3-inch wrought-iron butts 
at the top, with two hooks to each sash to secure them when either 
closed or open. All other sash are to be double-hung with braided 
cotton cord and iron weights, the pockets of the window-frames to 
be as long as practicable. 

All finished floors will have one 8d nail over each joist; and, 
after laying, they are to be scraped or planed to an even surface. 
These floors are to be laid after all other finish is in, and are to be cut 
with great care against the base. 

All finish lumber is to be put up in such a manner that the nails 
or screws securing it will be invisible. This is to be done by working 
through the back or in quirks or concealed places, but no splintering 
to hide the heads of nails will be required. 

The hardwood doors will be veneered on soft white pine cores 
made of strips not over f inch thick. Before the veneering is put on, 
the Architect is to be advised where the cores may be inspected; and, 
if the gluing or seasoning is defective, or hard knots are discovered, 
the cores will be rejected. * The panels are to be left free to shrink 


242 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


37 


All doors below third floor are to be If inches thick; all on third 
floor and above, If inches thick. 

The mantels are to be built up complete, all parts glued together 
and nailed or screwed in concealed places, and brought to the building 
ready to set in place. 

Hardware. The owner will furnish mortise locks complete, 
3 butts for each door, 2 sash lifts, 1 sash lock, 1 socket, and 4 sash 
pulleys for each window. 

The contractor is to set these and to furnish and set any other 
hardware evidently necessary to complete the work—such as wrought- 
iron brackets for shelves, sliding-door hangers, etc. 

Roof. The flat portions of the roof are to be covered with canvas. 
The steep portions will be covered with tile. 

Canvas. All canvas must weigh, when thoroughly dry, 10 
ounces to the square yard, and must not lose over 5 per cent of its 
dry weight after being soaked in water 10 hours and so rubbed as 
to take out all matter soluble in water. It is to be laid dry, stretched 
tight, all edges to be lapped 1 inch and tacked with f-inch tacks set 
f inch apart. 

In all places where the roof meets a vertical surface, three- 
cornered strips lb inches by 1J inches are to be nailed, and the canvas 
is to be carried up over them and 8 inches on the vertical wall. If 
such wall is of masonry, there will be a 1J inch by 2\ inch dressed 
strip bolted by expansion bolts set 3 feet apart under the projecting 
ledge of brick; and canvas is to be tacked to the under side of this 
strip as at other places. 

After the entire roof is covered and the canvas swept clean, it 
is to be soaked with water, and, when thoroughly wet, is to be rubbed 
full of stiff paint composed of white lead and raw oil in proportions 
of 100 pounds of lead to 3£ gallons of oil. After this is dry and the 
surface hard, and not less than five days after the first application, 
the roof angl all exposed surfaces of wood strips in connection there¬ 
with are to have two coats of white lead and oil paint. 

Tile. The steep portions of the roof are to be covered with red 
tile burned from a tough clay; and all nails or wire necessary to 
secure them permanently to the roof are to be of copper. If wire is 
used, the gauge is to be not less than No. 12; if nails, the gauge is to 
be not less than No. 8. 


243 



38 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


All joints are to be so close that there will be no necessity for 
water proof paper below, or for cement, except at the hips. 

All valleys are to be open, and flashed with 14-ounce copper, » 
which must extend not less than 8 inches under the tile at each side. 

Note to Student. No. 2.—See Note No. 1, on page 33, relative to 
examination of actual masonry work. At this point the student is to follow 
the directions in No. 1, but applying them to carpentry work and materials, 
and to write a specification (not exceeding 400 words) of some portion as 
directed in Note No. 1. 

Gutters and Conductors. All gutters and exterior conductor 
pipes will be of 16-ounce copper; and where they join the soil pipe 
system, they are to be soldered to cast brass thimbles, which are to 
be calked into the Iron piping with pig lead. 

Plastering. There will be no plastering in basement; but all 
the walls above are to be finished with 3-coat work. All brick walls 
are furred with terra-cotta, on which the plaster is to be placed. All 
other surfaces are to be lathed with pine or spruce lath only partially 
seasoned; and wherever these lathed partitions and the brickwork of 
chimneys or the terra-cotta adjoin, expanded-metal or wire-mesh 
lath are to be placed, extending 8 inches onto each side; and, as each 
coat of plaster is placed, all corners are to be cut through from floor 
to ceiling. 

All plasterers’ material is to be freshly burned stone lime, slaked 
at least two weeks before mixing with sand; and to contain hair of 
the ordinary quality sold for plastering purposes, and sand clean 
and sharp. The mixing is to be done just prior to its use, and is to 
be thorough. The hair is to be soaked so as to separate it from 
matting, and enough used, and so mixed that it will not be possible 
to find any small portions of the mortar in which the hair is not visible. 

The first coat is to be mixed very rich with lime, using not more 
than four volumes of sand to one of unslaked lime; and is to be 
scratched. 

The second is to be a thin coat, in which six volumes of sand 
may be used to one part of unslaked lime; and this is not to be applied 
before the first coat is dry and hard. 

The last coat in all cases will be white; hard finish of lime putty 
gauged with plaster of Paris. This is to be applied in not less than 
five days after the first coats appear dry and hard. 


244 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


39 


The first two coats are to go to the floor back of all base-boards 
and wainscot, and be brought up to all grounds. 

When completed, the work is to be straight and free from dis¬ 
colorations, hair cracks, or lime pits. 

Note to Student. No. 3. —See Note No. 1 on page 33, relative to 
examination of actual masonry work. At this point the student is to follow 
the directions in No. 1, but applying them to plaster work and materials, 
and to prepare a 400-word specification of a portion of the work or materials, 
as explained. 

Paint. All exterior woodwork is to be primed as soon as in 
place, with raw linseed oil and a very small amount of yellow ocher; 
and later to have two additional coats of raw linseed and white lead 
paint mixed in the proportion of 100 pounds of lead to 5 gallons of 
oil, colored with such pigments as will produce the single color 
desired, and having no more drier in each coat than is necessary to 
insure its drying within 18 hours. 

All pine woodwork throughout the house, including floors, will 
have one coat of white shellac and three coats of paint, mixed as 
above and of the colors selected by the Architect. There will be 
one color only in each room for finish, and one for floors. 

All hardwood except floors is to be filled with a mineral filler, 
and to have three coats of varnish, the last two rubbed to a dull sur¬ 
face. The varnish is to be of a brand covered by an affidavit from 
the manufacturers that it contains no rosin or petroleum products 
and that it contains at least 17 per cent of copal gums. Also, the 
varnish must be of such character that a film on glass will not dry in 
less than 48 hours; and when dry, the film is not to be brittle. Four 
days must elapse between the application of each coat of varnish 
and the succeeding coat. 

All hardwood floors, treads, and risers are to have one coat of 
hot raw linseed oil and two additional coats of cold raw linseed oil, 
three days to intervene between each coat and the next. 

Glass. All glass is to be at least J inch thick and free from all 
smoke, bubbles, or wavy lines. It is to be set in the sash after 
priming with white lead, back-puttied, and fastened with points not 
over 6 inches apart and full-puttied. 

PLUMBING 

Fixtures. The bathtubs are to be cast iron, with roll rim and 
standing waste, enameled on the inside and over the roll, the outside 


245 



40 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


finished with 3 coats of white lead and oil paint and one coat of outside 
varnish. 

The washtrays and sinks are to be of similar material and finish, 
the sinks to have overflow cast in side; and both are to stand on 
galvanized-iron legs. 

The washbowls are to be oval, not less than fourteen by seven¬ 
teen inches, of one-piece earthenware, with standing waste and 
nickel-plated legs. 

The waterclosets are to be of the siphon-jet type, with bowl and 
trap all cast in one piece, with hardwood seat and cover bolted to the 
bowl, and with copper-lined oak tank of 10 gallons’ capacity. 

The hot-water boiler will be of galvanized iron of 60 gallons' 
capacity, tested to 150 pounds’ pressure and connected to the water¬ 
front of range. 

All enameled iron work is to carry the guarantee of manufacturer 
against cracking or crazing of enamel for two years. 

All earthenware must carry a similar guarantee against crazing 
for two years; and the guarantee in each case must provide that, in 
case the fixtures do not hold out for the period in perfect condition 
as regards the points covered, the manufacturers will pay all ex¬ 
penses incident to furnishing new ones in place, on which they are to 
place a similar guarantee. 

All paint and varnish used are to be of qualities specified under 
“Painting.” 

All water piping is to be of lead, of the weights known to the 
trade as “Extra Heavy,” except in basement, where it is to be of gal¬ 
vanized iron. ✓ 

From the end of the water main now at the front wall, extend 
a lj-inch pipe to where the lead riser leaves the first floor-level, this 
riser to be 1 inch and to extend to the ceiling of the upper floor. 

The branch to the basement washtrays is to be f inch; and that 
to the water-closet, § inch, from the 1 J-md 1 main. 

Above the basement, branches to sinks and water-closet tanks 
are to be \ inch; to bathtubs and hot-water boiler f inch; and to 
washbowls, § inch. 

Hot water from the boiler at kitchen range is to be carried to all 
fixtures except water-closets, in pipes similar in all respects to those 
above referred to. 


246 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


41 


All lead pipes are to be run on hardwood boards and through 
floor-boxes, and to have tacks not over 2 feet 6 inches apart; and 
where run horizontally, there are to be two brass bands between each 
pair of tacks, to prevent sagging. 

No turn is to be made on a circle of less than 9 inches diameter; 
and pipes are to be carried so as to provide a dead end of not less than 
3 feet above the highest branch, and so graded that all will drain 
through a stop and waste-cock to be set just inside the basement wall. 

There are to be as few joints as possible in the lead piping; 
but where they occur, either in connection with lead or brass, the 
joints are to be wiped; and, if connections are necessary to iron 
pipes, brass ferrules either calked or screwed into the iron pipe are 
to be used. 

Just inside the basement wall, and wherever a branch leaves 
the main in both hot and cold-water lines, place stop and waste-cocks 
with waterway of equal area to the pipe in which it is placed, and with 
£-inch wastes to waste pipes or sewer. Those in the cellar are to be 
plain brass; and those above, nickel-plated, with lever handles. 

All faucets except for bathtubs are to be self-closing, of J-inch 
larger waterway than the pipe supplying them, those in the wash- 
trays and sinks to be plain brass, those for bowls to be low down 
nickel-plated. 

The bathtubs will be equipped with combination, compression 
bibbs closing with the pressure, of the plainest and heaviest stock 
pattern, with nozzle to which a ^-inch hose can be attached. 

Traps. Under the set of tubs, each sink, and bathtub, set a 
4-inch lead pot trap 8 inches deep, with 4-inch brass trap-screw in 
the top, set in an accessible place as near the fixture as possible. 

Under each bowl set a nickel-plated trap which cannot be siphoned 
under any conditions existing in the building, and with no movable 
parts, but with trap-screw which will permit its being cleaned. 

Soil Pipe. All soil pipe and fittings are to be of cast iron of the 
grade known to the trade as “Extra Heavy”—that is, the grade in 
which a 5-foot length of 4-inch pipe weighs not less than 65 pounds, 
coated outside and inside with asphalt paint. The main line extending 
from the running trap now in manhole to a point just above the high¬ 
est fixture, is to be 4-inch; all branches to fixtures are to be of the 


847 



42 CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


smallest diameter allowed by the city ordinances, and are to be 
brought to points as near the fixtures as possible. 

Above the highest fixture, a 4-inch wrought-iron fitting is to be 
calked into the cast-iron hub of soil pipe, and continue with 4-inch 
wrought-iron screw-jointed pipe into the flue for the kitchen range, 
and thence to top of chimney; but before the wrought pipe enters 
the flue, a right angle is to be formed in the screw-joint fittings, so that, 
in case of unequal settlement of any part, the screw-joint in the angle 
will take up the movement. 

Back air or “vent” pipes are to be installed only as required to 
comply with the city ordinances. 

All soil and waste pipes are to be calked with pig lead. 

As the details show the location of pipes and fittings required 
on the plumbing drawings, they are not described here. 

After all roughing-in of soil and waste pipe is complete, all 
outlets below the top are to be stopped, and the entire system is to 
be filled with water, which is to stand in the pipe without settlement 
for 10 hours. 

All connections from bowls and sinks to traps and waste pipes 
are to be of 1-inch “Heavy” lead; from washtrays and bathtubs, 
the wastes are to be 1J inch “Heavy” lead; and the joints are to be 
formed as indicated above for water runs. 

The water-closets are to be set on and bolted to brass flanges 
above the floor, from which a 4-inch lead bend of 8-pound weight 
is to connect with a brass ferrule calked in the soil pipe. 

The flush-pipe connection from tank to water-closet is to be 
nickel-plated brass 1 J-inch pipe. 

In carrying out the entire plumbing system, all pipes are to be 
run exposed, except when soil pipe is continued in flue. There is 
to be no cutting of timbers; and wherever pipes pass through parti¬ 
tions or floors, collars of the same material as the pipe are to be placed, 
except that where lead pipes are used, the collars are to be of nickel- 
plated brass. 

The requirements of the city ordinances are to be observed; 
while where this specification requires work or material in addition to 
that allowed by the ordinance, this requirement is not to be construed 
as relieving the Contractor from furnishing all that is herein specified; 
and when the work is completed, it must be in such condition that 


248 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


43 


every fixture and pipe shall perform the functions pertaining thereto 
in a perfect manner. And, further, it shall be an obligation on the 
part of the Contractor to make the smoke and peppermint test of 
the entire system, when required, not less than 3 months after the 
occupancy of the premises; and previous to such tests, there is to be 
no tightening of unions or other screw-joints. Any joints which 
then are not found to be perfectly tight, are to be opened, and such 
washers or other appliances placed as in the opinion of the Architect 
will make a permanent seal. 

Note to Student. No. 4.—See Note No. 1 on page 33, relative to 
examination of actual masonry work. At this point the student is to follow 
the directions in No. 1, but applying them to plumbing work and materials, 
and to prepare a 400-word specification of a portion of the work and materials, 
as explained 

Gas Piping. Inasmuch as the Gas Company lays down full 
and complete rules governing the sizes of pipes and methods of 
running them, which must be followed, this portion of the work is 
not set forth here further than to require that such rules shall be 
followed. But in carrying out the work no joist is to be cut more than 
1 inch deep, and never more than 8 inches from its bearing. 

No vertical stud is to be cut more than 1J inches deep, and no 
vertical supporting timber or pier under any circumstances. 

When complete, the system is to be tested, in addition to the Gas 
Company’s test, with 15 pounds’ air-pressure, which must be held 
for half an hour. 


HEATING 

The Owner will furnish, deliver, and set up in the cellar, but 
without any smoke- or steam-pipe connections, a cast-iron, sectional, 
low-pressure steam boiler; and the Contractor is to furnish and 
place all other necessary material and labor to install the system 
completely. All radiators are to be of cast iron. The piping is to 
be so installed that all steam and condensed water in the same pipe 
shall travel in the same direction, except that one short connection 
to radiators may let in steam and take out water, so that only one 
valve will be required. 

All radiator valves are to have unions, so that the radiator can 
be completely disconnected thereby, and are to be nickel-plated, 
with wood handles. 


£49 



44 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


The air-valves to radiators will be the ordinary type of hand 
valves. 

All valves other than radiator valves in pipes will be gate valves 
allowing a full opening. 

The sizes and positions of all radiators and pines are shown 
on drawings Nos. 30, 31, 32, and 33. 

The smoke pipe from the boiler is to be of No. 22 gauge black 
iron, with riveted joints. 

After the system of steam pipes and radiators is complete, it is 
to be tested with air-pressure to 50 pounds; and the pressure is to 
stand one hour without showing any drop at the gauge. 

All radiators are to be bronze-painted; and all pipes above 
basement are to be painted maroon, and all in basement black. 

A brick wall is to be placed around the boiler, extending to the 
floor-lining between the joists, leaving a space of at least 2 feet between 
boiler and wall at all points except in front. Overhead, nail to the 
joists No. 24 galvanized-iron sheets, above which, between the 
joists, put 2 inches of mineral wool. 

From the chamber thus formed, take IX tin pipes (that is, pipe of 
tin on iron or steel plates which weigh approximately 9 ounces to a 
square foot before coating with tin) to the registers indicated on the 
First-flooi® drawing. Each pipe is to have a damper completely 
closing the entire area. The registers are to have tight-fitting valves 
and cast-iron borders. 

Place the cold-air box of No. 24 galvanized iron, with hinged 
valve closing the entire area, and with chain and weight competent 
to hold it in any desired position. 

Note to Student. No. 5.—See Note No. 1 on page 33, relative to 
examination of actual masonry work. At this point the student is to follow 
the directions in No. 1, but applying them to heating apparatus, etc., and to 
prepare a 400-word specification of a part of the apparatus. 

Cleaning up. After the practical completion of the work, all 
surplus material and debris is to be removed from the premises; the 
building swept clean; windows washed; and the finish wiped off, so 
as to allow a final inspection of all visible points. Any items which 
are then passed as satisfactory shall be considered as fully complying 
with the contract requirements unless there later appear hidden 
defects which at that time could not be seen. 


250 







LIVING ROOM IN HOUSE OF MR. MAX FERNEKES, AT BROOKDALE, WIS. 

Fernekes & Cramer, Architects, Milwaukee, Wis. 

View Looking toward Fireplace and Sideboard in Dining Room. The Wood Finish through¬ 
out First Floor is Cypress, except Ceiling in Living Room, which is an Oak-Beam Ceiling Show¬ 
ing Oak Joists Used for Construction. The Doors are Not Paneled, but Have a Smooth Surface 
on One Side and Strips on Back; Front is Covered with Two Strap Brass-Plated Hinges Running 
over Entire Door. Thumb-Latches are Used Throughout. 










a 

c5 

S 





Dean & Dean, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 
Paving Brick Veneer and Plaster; Tile Roof. 



























































































































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


45 


PROPOSAL SHEET 

.the undersigned hereby proposes to construct a 

dwelling for. 

in strict accordance with drawings numbered ..,. 

and the foregoing specifications for the sum of. 

... $ . 

If light colored sand stone or lime stone is substituted for 
all face brick and ornamental terra-cotta following 

the same outlines, add - - - - - $. 

If two months more time is allowed for the construction 

deduct - - - - - - - - $. 

If in the upper stories plain oak is substituted for painted 

pine add - - - - - - - $. 

Signed. 

THE FORMAL CONTRACT 

After the completion of the drawings and specifications, it is 
customary to award a contract— i.e., to enter into an agreement for 
carrying out the work; and an instrument is drawn for the signature 
of both the Owner and the Contractor, setting forth their legal rela¬ 
tions. Inasmuch as a contract between two parties is an agree¬ 
ment to do a certain specific thing, it is evident that the principal 
part of the contract, or the basis therefor, consists of the drawings 
and specification, in which is the full and complete description of the 
specific thing to be done. Hence, in the preceding text, the point 
that every requirement and condition should be clearly set forth, 
has been emphasized; for, however strongly the formal contract 
is drawn, if it has no specific basis, it is of no value. Therefore, 
from a legal standpoint, emphasis is again placed on the necessity 
for a clear and unambiguous statement in the specification, of just 
what is to be done. 

The formal contract is not drawn till after the award of the 
work; but separation in time does not change the fact that it is only 
a continuation of the specification ; it is its completion, and it should 
in short, clear terms set forth the final arrangement. 

As the province of the specification is to set forth and explain 
what is not included in the province of the drawings, the formal con¬ 
tract is to set forth such final conditions as the specification was 
not able to cover. 

There are certain conditions likely to prevail in carrying out the 


251 











46 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


work, which may in a very material way affect the operation of the 
contract, and possibly destroy its force notwithstanding the fact 
that its basis is sound. As the contract is an agreement to do a cer¬ 
tain specific thing, it follows that, if any change is made in any of the 
matter which goes to make up that specific thing so that some other 
specific thing is substituted, the terms of the contract are not filled, 
and such changes, unless properly guarded, can be made the basis 
of refusal on the part of either the Owner or the Builder to abide by 
all the conditions covered by the contract. Questions of this de¬ 
scription are among the most serious which arise in general archi¬ 
tectural practice. 

As buildings progress, the Owner and often the Architect see 
items which, if changed, would improve the result; and as the depar¬ 
ture from the specific thing contracted for appears slight, the Builder 
is in a general way either requested or directed to make the change. 
Also, in the progress of the work, the Builder often finds it possible 
for him to make better arrangements for materials, etc., by making 
substitution, and, considering the change of little moment, proceeds 
to make it. 

In the first of the above cases, the Owner or the Architect is 
surprised when he finds that modifications made by either are the 
basis for an extra charge of some magnitude, and that it is also 
used as an excuse (and it is generally valid) for several days* delay 
in the completion of the work. 

In the second case, the Builder is surprised to find his substi¬ 
tution the basis of a demand that he make a material deduction 
from the contract price. 

In either case, the Architect is blamed by both parties—and 
often justly so—for allowing matters to drift into the existing con¬ 
ditions; and it is not unusual for the Owner and Builder to get 
together and settle their differences, without changing their opinion 
of the Architect. 

Therefore, after the signing of the contract, it should be the 
special province of the Architect to see that as few changes as pos¬ 
sible are made; and, when it is advisable to make changes, to see 
also that all the conditions affected thereby are fully understood, and 
that such understanding is expressed in writing signed by both 
parties. 


252 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


47 


It is not the intention of the above to intimate that desirable 
changes should be abandoned in order to avoid complicating the 
contract situation, because there is no work in which improvements 
cannot be made as it progresses; but emphasis is laid on the sug¬ 
gestion that such changes should be as few as possible, and should 
never be allowed at all unless there is a distinct advantage gained to 
the Owner, and that, in consenting to any changes, the case should 
be put in such formal shape that there can be no later misunder¬ 
standing. 

As the question of time is generally important to the Owner, 
the Architect should see that all details are furnished within the 
specified time, as it is unreasonable to expect the Builder to com¬ 
plete the work on time if he is delayed in the receipt of his drawings. 
Such delay is generally a sufficient excuse for extension of the con¬ 
tract time for completing the work. Special care should be taken 
that the modification on the details be not of such a character as can 
be used as a basis for demands for extra compensation beyond con¬ 
tract prices 

Under ordinary conditions such as prevail in private practice 
in work of not large magnitude, a simple document is all that is 
necessary to set forth the final relations of Owner and Builder, in 
form somewhat as follows: 

FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN OWNER AND BUILDER. 

AN AGREEMENT entered into this 15th day of September, 1907, 


by and between., of Chicago, Owner, party of the first 

part, and., also of Chicago, Builder, party of the second 

part: 


Witnesseth: That the said party of the second part, for and in 
consideration of the sum of Five Thousand (5,000) Dollars, in payments as 
set forth in the specification, agrees to construct a city dwelling for the said 
party of the first part, at the corner of.Ave. and.St., 


City of Chicago, in accordance with drawings numbered.and 

specifications all prepared therefor by.Architect. 


Which drawings and specifications are a part of and the basis of this 
agreement. 

In consideration of the foregoing, the said party of the first part 
agrees to pay to the said party of the second part the full sum of Five Thousand 
(5,000) Dollars, in payments and under conditions as fully set forth in the 
specification. 

In witness of the foregoing, the parties aforesaid here set their hands 


858 









48 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


and seals to this and one other instrument of like tenor and date, this. 

day of., 1907. 

., Owner (Seal), 

., Builder (Seal), 

In presence of: 


Should changes be necessary, a supplementary agreement in the 
following form should be prepared for the signature of both parties: 

Whereas: ., Owner, did, on the Fifteenth day 

of September, 1907, enter into an agreement with., 

Builder, for the erection of a dwelling in accordance with drawings and speci¬ 
fication prepared therefor by., Architect, as fully set 

forth in such agreement; and 

Whereas: it is the desire of said., Owner, to 

make certain changes as fully set forth as follows: 


The said.. Builder, agrees to make such changes and 

make all necessary modifications in the work necessarily incident thereto, for 
the sum of One Hundred (100) Dollars, as an addition to the original contract 
price for the work, it being understood that no additional time is to be required 
in the completion of the work on account of these changes. 

And the said., Owner, agrees to pay the addi¬ 

tional sum of One Hundred (100) Dollars on account of these changes. 

In witness of the foregoing, the parties above said have set their hands 

and seals to this and one other instrument of like tenor and date this. 

day of., 1907. 

.. Owner. (Seal). 

.. Builder. (Seal). 

In presence of: 


i The above agreement has been duly noted by me, 

., Architect. 

As the work progresses, it will be necessary for the Architect 
each month to make an estimate of the value of the labor and materials 
satisfactorily in place, and to issue to the Contractor a certificate 
for presentation to the Owner. A certificate drawn along the fol¬ 
lowing lines not only serves its purpose of notifying the Owner of 
the amount due, but also furnishes him with a statement of the 
account to date. It is very desirable that both Owner and Con¬ 
tractor shall each month see, understand, and sign a clear statement 
of the conditions existing under the contract; for this closes dp all 
matters which if allowed to drift, might cause serious misunder¬ 
standing. 


254 























CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


49 


Certificate No. 2. 

Chicago, Illinois. 

November 1, 1907. 

This certifies that., Contractor, under his agree¬ 
ment, dated September 15, 1907, with., to construct a 

dwelling at the corner of.Ave. and.. .St., City of Chicago, 

is entitled to a payment in amount Twelve Hundred Dollars ($1,200.00) 
under the terms of said agreement in accordance with tfhe following statement 
of the account: 

Contract price.$ 5,000.00 

Extra No. 1, dated October 3.100.00 

Extra No. 2, dated October 18. 125.00 


Total of contract and extras to date.$ 5,225.00 

Value of work and materials satisfactorily 

in place at this date.$2,400.00 

Retained percentage 10%.$ 240.00 

Certificate No. 1, Oct. 1, 1907. 960.00 

Certificate No. 2, Nov. 1, 1907. 1,200.00 

Total value of work in place on this date.$ 2,400.00 

Total balance unpaid under this contract.$ 2,825.00 

To... Owner. .. Architect. 

November 3, 1907. 

Received from., Owner, the sum of Twelve 

Hundred Dollars ($1,200.00), and I acknowledge that the above statement 
of the account is complete and correct. 

., Contractor. 

RECEIPT FOR INSURANCE POLICIES. 

(To be detached and delivered to Contractor after signing.) 


Received of., Contractor, fire insurance policies 

as follows: ., in total amount $2,600.00, 


issued as required by agreement dated September 15, 1907, for the erection 
of a dwelling for me at the corner of.Ave. and.St. 

., Owner. 

In all the foregoing relative to formal contracts, consideration 
has been given only to such cases as would come up in an ordinary 
private practice, where it is taken for granted that the relations of 
parties with one another are such that all that is necessary to insure 
a satisfactory completion of all agreements is a definite understanding 
of exactly what is to be furnished and done by each of the contract¬ 
ing parties. No contracts can be drawn, or specifications written, 
which prevent either party from bringing suit against anybody if 
they so desire. 


255 




























50 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


The question is entirely different in the case of formal contracts 
for public or corporation work requiring bonds, where, on account 
of the impersonal nature of the Owner, it is impossible to adapt 
procedure to the varying conditions that arise. It is entirely outside 
the province of the Architect to attempt to arrange details of a legal 
nature in such cases. The liability of a bondsman is very peculiar, 
and he can be relieved therefrom because of even very small depar¬ 
tures from the agreement. Thus changes in the work or material, 
changes in the dates or manner of payment, changes in time of com¬ 
pletion, etc., can be set up (and generally with success) as reasons 
why obligations under the bond should be set aside. 

As a general thing, bonds are now furnished by large corporations 
who employ the best of legal talent to dispute, on any ground, their 
liability should they be called on; and it is unreasonable for an Archi¬ 
tect to attempt to protect his patron’s interest under such circum¬ 
stances. Therefore, in cases of this nature, the Attorney representing 
the public body or the corporation for which the work is to be done, 
should draw the formal contract and bond, and supervise their 
execution. Any action during the progress of the work which could 
in any way affect the specific obligations of either party, should be 
passed on by such Attorney; and, in case of any change, he will 
obtain a formal consent of the sureties on the bond, before its final 
ratification. 

GOVERNMENT CONTRACTS 

It is not generally known to what an extent the Treasury Depart¬ 
ment of the United States is a builder, or to what extent its demands 
for material and labor influence the market; nor do many contractors 
or material men know much about the nature of the contracts to be 
awarded, and there is a kind of superstition that such contracts are so 
bound up in “red tape” that it is wise for contractors and men with 
good material to keep out of this market. It is the object of this paper 
to show the amount of work which is under the control of the Treas¬ 
ury Department; to indicate its general nature and the conditions 
under which contracts are let and the work executed, and which 
govern the furnishing of materials; and to explain the nature of the 
formal contract and in what respects it differs from those usually 
required between individuals. 


256 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


51 


Government work is not all red tape. In fact, when the reasons 
for certain fixed lines of action are understood, the red tape appears 
in the light of necessary business machinery, which, if more frequently 
applied with discretion to private enterprises, would assist in pro¬ 
ducing results far in advance of the average now obtained. 

Number and Value of Buildings Now under Way and Contem¬ 
plated in the Near Future. There are now (January, 1907) under 
contract, wholly or in part, or for which contracts will probably be 
awarded within two years, approximately 250 buildings, the cost 
limit of which, including sites, has been fixed by Congress at approxi¬ 
mately $40,000,000. Placing the cost of sites at about 20 per cent of 
the limit of cost, it will appear that there is to be spent in material and 
labor over $30,000,000. At the rate at which work is generally 
carried on, the disbursements involved through the different channels 
will be from $600,000 to $1,000,000 a month. While there are many 
corporations in the world disbursing an equal sum for materials and 
labor required in industrial enterprises, there is probably none where 
such large sums are disbursed through general channels open to so 
many branches of industry. 

Character of Buildings. The buildings under the control of the 
Treasury Department are for the use of the civil branches of the 
Government, such as Postoffices, Courts, Customs, Internal Revenue, 
Marine Hospitals, and Quarantine Stations. Such buildings as the 
Capitol, the Library of Congress, and the Executive buildings of the 
different Departments at Washington, are not under the control of 
the Treasury Department nor built by it; neither are forts or other 
Army or Navy buildings, or United States Jails. 

Many of the buildings under the Treasury Department are very 
large and expensive, the New York Custom House and the Chicago 
and San Francisco Postoffices being buildings of this type. The 
larger number, however, are of moderate size, ranging from 40 feet 
by 80 feet outside dimensions, and one story high, to buildings of three 
times that area and three stories high, and costing complete, with 
heating apparatus, etc., from $35,000 to $175,000 each. 

The large majority are of fireproof construction and classic 
design, with interior finish of hardwood and marble where the funds 
will permit. The best of materials and appliances are used through¬ 
out, as it is inadvisable and almost impracticable in public buildings 


257 



52 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


of this character, to exercise the many economies which prevail in 
private building. 

The interiors are fitted with the oest of modern appliances and 
conveniences; plumbing is extensive and perfect; the toilet rooms 
for Postoffice carriers are supplied not only with the usual appliances, 
but often with shower-baths; and no woodwork either in floors or in 
finish is allowed. Through the building, small private toilet rooms 
are provided for the more prominent officials; and in many, especially 
in the South, bathtubs are supplied. The heating, ventilating, and 
electric work are, in their lines, equally complete. 

The buildings in the larger cities where the Railway Mail Service 
men change, have dormitories for the accommodation of from ten to 
seventy-five men. In the Postoffice proper are galleries with openings 
commanding every corner accessible to the men, from which Inspec¬ 
tors can watch for days, without arousing suspicion, any person sus¬ 
pected of pillaging the mails. 

There is always a large “swing room” for carriers when off duty, 
where they provide themselves with games, boxing gloves, and occa¬ 
sionally a billiard table for recreation. 

In the larger Postoffice buildings are the most perfect of mechani¬ 
cal equipments, engines, boilers, electric generators, elevators, mail¬ 
carrying and handling devices, sweeping machinery, etc. 

From the above it is evident that there are few lines in the build¬ 
ing industries which should not be interested in the erection and 
furnishing of these many buildings. 

Building Conditions. It is a matter of interest to a very large 
body of contractors, sub-contractors, artisans of all callings, and 
material men and manufacturers, how the Department builds, and 
in what ways it differs from the average investor in its building opera¬ 
tions and contracts. 

There is a prevalent idea that mystery surrounds the getting 
the whole or any part of a government contract—that one must be on 
the inside and know how to pull the wires. This feeling arises prob¬ 
ably from the facts that the Government as an Employer and Owner 
is a very different affair to deal with from a personal Owner; and, 
because of such difference, and because of the magnitude of the 
varied branches of work, rendering it necessary to have some fixed 
and unyielding rules and regulations to which all doing business with 


258 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 53 


the Government must comply, the great mass of people who should 
be interested are apt to think that this is all “red tape” and that they 
cannot get near any of this work. 

When the Owner and the Contractor in ordinary practice make 
an agreement, it is always modified by the personal conditions and 
qualities of each, so that the conditions and terms frequently differ 
materially in instances of work of the same character. With the De¬ 
partment, however, this cannot be. The Department has fixed policies 
and rules, and is hedged about by law in such a way that it must be 
unyielding at all points; it cannot adapt the work to the conditions 
of the Contractor; it can take no chances; and anyone seeking to do 
business with the Department must lay aside all personal ideas of 
methods, and must seek from the first to get into the line of the Depart¬ 
ment’s methods and requirements, even if these appear to be without 
reason. The Contractor who imagines that he can take a contract, and 
can afterwards have its lines modified to suit his own methods, which 
he may honestly believe to be better than the requirements of the 
Department, is not only bound to be disappointed, but is certain to 
lose a round sum before final settlement. 

When bids are asked for the construction of a building, the 
drawings and specifications are so prepared that the bidder is given 
notice relative to every requirement; nothing is taken for granted; 
it is fully set forth to what extent he is to be responsible for the com¬ 
pletion of the work, and he is shown all details leading up to such 
completion. How and when each payment shall be made, is fully 
explained. Many of these requirements are unusual; he may not, 
and probably does not, understand why they are inserted; but that 
is really none of his business; the requirement is plainly stated; and 
if he wants to put in a bid, he has but to figure just what the cost of 
the apparently useless requirements will be, and to add such amount 
to his bid. 

The conditions which govern Treasury contracts are the result of 
the experience of many years; and if a greater proportion of private 
Owners and Contractors for private work would adopt similarly 
exact methods in their operations, they would be attended with much 
fewer annoyances and much less friction. The Department is just 
as rigid in not permitting a Contractor to furnish something for 
nothing, as it is in not permitting him to substitute a poorer article 


259 



54 CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


than that required by the contract. Should the Contractor under 
any circumstances make a substitution, he is never safe. The Super¬ 
intendent on the work may pass it; but the Contractor never knows 
when some traveling Inspector or other official may be put on the 
work and detect the change. In that case, the Superintendent, as 
well as the Contractor, receives severe censure, and the Contractor 
has either to rectify the trouble or to consent to a deduction of a good 
round sum, which usually represents several times the difference in 
value between the material furnished and that required. 

It is fully set forth in the specification, that, in case of dispute 
regarding what is required or regarding the value of extra work, 
either as an addition or as a deduction, the decision of the Supervising 
Architect is to be final; and this means more than such clauses in 
private specifications, for the Department cannot be sued, and, in 
case the Contractor objects to the ruling and stops work, the Depart¬ 
ment has the power to abrogate the contract and finish the work at 
the expense of the sureties on the Contractor’s bond. Later the 
Contractor can bring a suit in the Court of Claims; but it is very 
rarely that any substantial change is made in the original rulings. 
This rather autocratic power appears one-sided, and at first thought 
unfair; and, because of such appearance, it is never exercised except 
under extreme conditions, after every effort at reasonable settlement 
has failed; and then the decisions are such that, as above stated, the 
Court of Claims rarely reverses them to any extent. 

This power is necessary for the Government; otherwise the 
Department would be at all times subject to inroads and impositions 
which would make progress impossible. 

The sub-contractor and material man has no right of lien; but 
he has a right, after a certain lapse of time, to bring suit against 
the Contractor; moreover, the bond required by the Government, 
equal to one-half of the contract price, is also for his benefit, so that 
he has the same protection under the bond as has the Department. 
Upon application, certified copies of all contracts and bonds are fur¬ 
nished for his use by the Department, free. But the Department is 
under no obligation, nor has it any right, to withhold payments from 
the Contractor at the request or demand of unpaid creditors. 

The relations of sub-contractors and material men to the Depart¬ 
ment are peculiar in that they cannot in any way be recognized in a 


260 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


55 


business connection; they have no more connection with the Depart¬ 
ment than a factory which makes the shoe sold by a dealer has with 
the customer. The Contractor is the only business man known or 
recognized; all business of whatever nature must come under his 
signature. A sub-contractor can get no information or directions from 
the Department’s representative. If it were otherwise, the Con¬ 
tractor would have just cause for complaints relative to interference 
with his business by the Government. 

Many years ago a Departmental order forbade the requirement 
of any particular item so as to limit competition, or the mention of 
any particular material or appliance, “or its equal;” as a conse¬ 
quence, in the specification, there must be inserted such descriptions 
as will require appliances or materials which can be had through 
competition and which will accomplish the ends required. The 
Contractor is at liberty to obtain his samples for approval in any 
market he desires; but when such samples are approved, it is a very 
difficult matter to get a change made; were it otherwise, the Depart¬ 
ment would be constantly annoyed and delayed in its work by Con¬ 
tractors changing their minds relative to the parties with whom they 
wish to deal. 

It is often urged by persons controlling some new and special 
appliance, that it is not good business for the Department to refuse 
to specify an article having all the good points which they can show 
to belong to the particular article controlled by them. If this idea 
governed, the office of the Supervising Architect would be over¬ 
whelmed by enthusiastic men with material and appliances of very 
doubtful value; and generally their claims would be urged by them and 
their representatives with a strenuousness in direct proportion to 
their worthlessness. 

Experience has also shown that where competition relative to 
items entering into work has not existed, the persons controlling them 
rarely resist the temptation to charge abnormal prices. This results 
in the Contractor seeking relief at the Department and asking to be 
permitted to make a substitution; if this is granted, the higher bidders 
at once set up the claim that their figures were based on the specified 
requirements, and if they had known that such were not to be enforced 
their bid would have been low enough to capture the contract. 

After a contract is once made, no one other than the Secretary of 


261 




56 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


the Treasury, or, under certain circumstances, an Assistant Secretary, 
has the authority to make a change, no matter how small. The 
Superintendent on the work can allow no variations; nor has even the 
Supervising Architect himself any authority to make a change. For 
instance, two rough coats of plaster are required back of a certain 
wainscot; it is found advisable to omit the second; the area is small, 
and the difference in expense nothing; but the Superintendent must 
obtain from the Contractor a proposal to omit this coat without expense 
to the Government; and after this proposal has gone through the 
different divisions of the Supervising Architect’s office for note, com¬ 
ment, and recommendation, the Assistant Secretary accepts the pro¬ 
posal in regular form as a public exigency, and with the under¬ 
standing that it is not to affect the time for completion, or the obliga¬ 
tion of the Sureties on the bond; etc., etc. If it were otherwise, the 
Superintendent would be constantly harrassed by requests and argu¬ 
ments for changes; and if he permitted changes, the worst of motives 
would be imputed to him. 

So thorough is the system in the Department, that there is no de¬ 
tail too small for the fullest consideration. There is probably no Archi¬ 
tect’s office elsewhere in the world where all details receive such 
attention; and there are few transactions of any nature occurring 
within recent years, of which all details cannot be obtained by any 
official in the office in less than ten minutes. 

When the red tape of the Department is considered from various 
standpoints, and the results reviewed, it should inspire more respect 
than is usually accorded to it; and the man who is seeking contracts 
or sub-contracts should first of all get into the spirit of the business 
methods of the Department, make his bid to cover all its requirements, 
and, if he gets the contract, use his best efforts to live up to the letter 
of every requirement. Such lines will bring success. Carelessness in 
following such will bring failure. 

It is often stated that such and such persons have the “inside 
track” with Department work, and that there is no use bidding 
against them. This is in a sense true; but in all such cases it will 
be found that that “inside track” was laid by the Contractor getting 
in line with the Department’s methods and doing business as thereby 
required; and the way is open for any other man to lay for himself 
such an inside track . 


262 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


57 


There is a prevalent impression that it requires some special 
effort to have an opportunity to figure on Department work. There 
could, however, be no greater mistake, as every effort is made by the 
Supervising Architect to obtain the best competition. For every 
building, from forty to sixty sets of drawings and specifications are 
printed and sent, without charge (being carried both ways free) to any 
general contractor who makes an application. In a very few instances 
a certified cheque is required, the proceeds of which are returned 
upon the receipt of the drawing, etc., in the office. Sub-contractors 
and material men cannot be supplied, as it is impracticable to make 
a sufficient number of sets, and for the farther reason that it is desired 
that all sub-contractors and material men shall get all the information 
on which they base their bids from their principals, thus avoiding the 
danger of differences of opinion that might arise relative to the scope 
of the sub-bids. 

When bids are desired, the work is advertised for from four to 
seven weeks, in representative technical journals throughout the 
country in the general section in which the work is to be done, and 
in the local papers of the town or city in which the building is to be 
erected. Notices as news items afe sent to a very large line of trade 
papers, and also to Contractors within a few hundred miles of the 
city whose addresses are available; but such notices are discontinued 
if the party addressed does not submit a bid after notices of several 
buildings have been sent. 

Many material men send in requests that their specialties be 
specified, and when they find that that cannot be done, drop all inter¬ 
est; whereas, if they followed up the matter, ascertained to whom the 
contract was awarded, and endeavored to arrange to sell any materials 
handled by them required under the contract, they would often 
obtain profitable contracts. 

In order that the exact nature of the form which has to be signed 
by parties to whom contracts for Treasury buildings are awarded 
may be seen, a specimen contract is herewith reproduced, with occa¬ 
sional notes in smaller type to explain its provisions. The form of 
bond is also printed; but, as this varies little from that used in private 
contracts, no notes in explanation of the provisions of the bond will 
be found necessary. 


263 



58 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


CONTRACT 

BETWEEN THE 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

AND 

JOHN DOE 

Whereas, By advertisement, duly made and published according to 
law, proposals were asked for furnishing all of the labor and materials 
for the work herein provided for; and 

Whereas, The proposal of John Doe. 

furnished in response thereto, was duly accepted, as hereinafter stated, 
on condition that he execute a contract in accordance with the terms of 
said bid. 

Note. —The 'practical award of the contract is a letter written by the Assistant 
Secretary of the Treasury (under written authority of the Secretary) to the successful 
bidder, accepting the bid and stating the principal conditions which are to govern—such 
as the price to be paid, time for completion—approving such appliances as have in the 
proposal sheet been offered for carrying out the contract (provided such are satisfactory), 
and settling the amount of bond to be furnished. This letter, referred to below, is 
attached to, and made a part of, the formal contract. 

13 Now, therefore, this agreement, made and entered into by and 


14 between...., Secretary of the Treasury, for and 

15 in behalf of the United States of America, of the first part, and John Doe, 

16 ........ 

17 ... 

18 ... .., of the second part, 

19 Witnesseth: That the party of the second part, for the consideration 


20 hereinafter mentioned, covenants and agrees to and with the party of the 

21 first part to furnish all of the labor and materials and do and perform all 

22 the work required... 

23 ... 

24 ...... 

25 . 

26 in strict and full accordance with the requirements of drawings numbered 

27 ..... 

28 . 

29 .. 

i 

30 and such other detail drawings as may be furnished to the party of the 

31 second part by the Supervising Architect of the United States Treasury 

32 Department; the advertisement for proposals, dated. 

33 190; the specification for the work; the proposal dated. 

34 190 , addressed to the said Supervising Architect by the said party 

35 of the second part; and letter dated.190, addressed to the 

36 said party of the second part by. 

37 .Assistant Secretary of the Treasury, accepting said 

38 proposal;. 

39 . . 

40 ... 

( 1 ) 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 


264 
























CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


59 


( 2 ) 

Note. —The proposal often covers several pages. First the lump sum price is 
stated for the entire work; then follow many Alternates —that is, the amount the bidder 
will add or deduct provided certain materials are substituted for those required by the 
straight bid—as, for instance, the amount to be deducted for “Alternate A,” substituting 
brick for all plain surfaces of the 

Superstructure above 1st floor line .$. 

After the alternates, unit prices are given. Thus: , 

Price per thousand for common brick in place.&. 

After this are lists of appliances to be used in the work. Thus: 

Name of boiler proposed to be used. 

Number of square feet of grate surfaces. 

Etc., etc. 

1 a true and correct copy of each of which said pap*? s is attached hereto 

2 and forms a part of this contract; and which said numbered drawings, 

3 bearing the signature of the said Supervising Arciinect and the signature 

4 of the said party of the second part, are on file to the Office of the Super- 

5 vising Architect of the United States Treasury Department, and are 

6 hereby made part of this contract. 

7 And the said party of the second part further covenants and agrees 

8 that the work herein agreed to be performed shall be commenced prompt- 

9 ly upon receipt of notice of the approval of the bond hereto attached, 

10 and that the same shall be carried on in such order and at such times and 

11 seasons, and with such force as shall from time to time be directed or 

12 prescribed by the Supervising Architect or his representative, and that 

13 the same shall be completed in all its parts within. 

14 . 

15 from the date of the approval of said bond hereto attached; that all 

16 materials used shall be of the very best quality of their respective kinds; 

17 that all the work performed shall be executed in the most skilful and 

18 workmanlike manner, and that both the materials used and the work 

19 performed shall be in every respect to the entire and complete satis- 

20 faction of the Supervising Architect. 

21 And the said party of the second part expressly covenants and agrees 

22 that the bond hereto attached shall be security, also, for the satisfactory 

23 performance and fulfilment of all the guarantees set forth in or required 

24 by said specification. 

25 .;. 

26 . 

Note. —No official has any right to permit a Contractor to do any work under the 
contract until the bond has been formally approved. 

27 It is expressly convenanted and agreed by and between the parties 

28 hereto that time is and shall be considered as of the essence of the con- 

29 tract on the part of the party of the second part, and in the event that the 

30 said party of the second part shall fail in the due performance of the 

31 entire work to be performed under this contract, by and at the time 

32 herein mentioned or referred to, the said party of the second part shall 

33 pay unto the party of the first part, as and for liquidated damages, and 

34 not as a penalty, the sum of.dollars for each and 

35 every day the said party of the second part shall be in default, which 


265 













CO CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


( 3 ) 

1 said sum of.dollars per day, in view of the difficulty 

2 of estimating such damages with exactness, is hereby expressly fixed, 

3 estimated, computed, determined, and agreed upon as the damages 

4 which will be suffered by the party of the first part by reason of such 

5 default, and it is understood and agreed by the parties to this contract 

6 that the liquidated damages hereinbefore mentioned are in lieu of the 

7 actual damages arising from such breach' of this contract; which said 

8 sum the said party of the first part shall have the right to deduct from 

9 any moneys in its hands otherwise due, or to become due, to the said 

10 party of the second part, or to sue for and recover compensation or 

11 damages for the nonperformance of this contract at the time or times 

12 herein stipulated or provided for. 

Note. —The question of actual damages is always a very difficult one to settle, 
and generally involves a lawsuit; therefore the contract states the amount of liquidated 
damages, or the amount settled and fixed in advance by both parties to be paid by the 
Contractor in case of default. While this amount is rarely less than $20.00 a day, with 
an average of about $40.00, the Secretary of the Treasury is empowered by Congress to 
remit so much as will reduce such sum to one th?t in his judgment is right; and as a 
matter of fact, it is usual to assess only such an amount as will cover the actual expense 
of maintaining a Superintendent on the ground, and any items of rent, etc., and additional 
inspections for which the Department has actually to pay on account of the failure to 
complete within contract time. 

13 The party of the second part further covenants and agrees to hold and 

14 save the United States, its officers, agents, servants, and employees, 

15 harmless from and against all and every demand, or demands, of any 

16 nature or kind, for, or on account of, the use of any patented invention, 

17 article, or appliance, included in the materials hereby agreed to be 

18 furnished under this contract. 

19 It is further covenanted and agreed by and between the parties hereto 
% 20 that the said party of the second part will, without expense to the United 

21 States, comply with all the municipal building ordinances and regula- 

22 tions, in so far as the same are binding upon the United States, and obt ain 

23 all required licenses and permits, and be responsible for all damages to 

24 person or property which may occur in connection with the prosecution 

25 of the work; that all work called for by the drawings and specifications, 

26 though every item be not particularly shown on the first or mentioned 

27 in the second, shall be executed and performed as though such work were 

28 particularly shown and mentioned in each, respectively, unless other- 

29 wise specifically provided; that all materials and work furnished shall be 

30 subject to the approval of the said Supervising Architect; and that said 

31 party of the second part shall be responsible for the proper care and 

32 protection of all materials delivered and work performed by said party 

33 of the second part until the completion and final acceptance of same. 

Note.— Municipal laws are binding on the Government to a very limited extent, 
and only outside of the lot line; the land, when bought by the Government, not only be¬ 
comes its property, but it is, by such sale, ceded back to the United States, so that the 
land occupied by the public building is no longer a portion of the State, and the State or 
City has no more authority over it than it has over the District of Columbia. 

Cases sometimes occur when some city official attempts to show authority, as in 
one case where a permit to enter the sewer was denied until some minor useless demand 


166 



































































COTTAGE AT NORTH EVANSTON, ILL. 

R. C. Spencer, Jr., Architect, Chicago, Ill. 

Frame House; First-Story Walls, Narrow Clapboards Painted a Dull Red; Second-Story, Wide 
Clapboards Painted White. Built in 1896. Cost, about $2,000. 




FIRST AND SECOND STORY PLANS OF COTTAGE SHOWN ABOVE. 

Credit is due “The House Beautiful ” Magazine , Owner of the Copyright , for the Use of this Picture . 





























































































FLORIDA BUNGALOW. 

R. C. Spencer, Jr., Architect, Chicago, Ill. 
Outside Walls Rough Shiplap, Stained. 


OF SECOND 
>toct over. 
KITCHEN. 



M 

A 


A 

SICETCH 
Fob a 
COTTAGE 
FOB 

MB G A CLINE 
ON THE 
ORANGE RIVER. 
FORT MYERS 
FLORIDA 
RPBT- C 5PENCERJB 
ARCHITECT 
1200 

STEIN WAY HALL 
CHICAGO, ILL- 
OCT- 22ND. 
1903,. 


c 


V 

5 




GROUND-FLOOR AND SECOND-STORY PLANS FOR FLORIDA BUNGALOW. 

Credit is Due “The House Beautiful ” Magazine , Owner of the Copyright, 
for the Use of this Picture. 





































































































































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


61 


(4) 

relative to the plumbing was complied with. The official had a perfect right to refuse the 
permit as the sewer was in the street; but after the Department had decided not to turn 
on the water, and to leave all plumbing fixtures unusable, the official soon found it better 
policy to allow the connection. This policy is always followed by the Government, as the 
practice of the Supervising Architect’s office in all matters of this sort is the best, and is 
generally far better than that followed by many municipal laws. 

Inside the lot lines, municipal and state authority do not exist, except for minor 
police regulations. 

1 It is further covenanted and agreed by and between the parties hereto 

2 that the said party of the second part will make any omissions from, 

3 additions to, or changes in, the work or materials herein provided for 

4 whenever required by said party of the first part, the valuation of such 

5 work and materials to be determined on the basis of the contract unit of 

6 value of material and work referred to, or, in the absence of such unit of 

7 value, on prevailing market rates, which market rates, in case of dispute, 

8 are to be determined by the said Supervising Architect, whose decision 

9 with reference thereto shall be binding upon both parties; and that no 

10 claim for damages, on account of such changes or for anticipated profits, 

11 shall be made or allowed. 

12 It is further covenanted and agreed that no claim for compensation for 

13 any extra materials or work is to be made or allowed, unless the same be 

14 specifically agreed upon in writing or directed in writing by the party of 

15 the first part; and that no addition to, omission from, or changes in the 

16 work or materials herein specifically provided for shall make void or 

17 affect the other provisions or covenants of this contract, but the differ- 

18 ence in the cost thereby occasioned, as the case may be, shall be added to 

19 or deducted from the amount of the contract; and, in the absence of an 

20 express agreement or provision to the contrary, no addition to, or 

21 omission from, or changes in the work or materials herein specifically 

22 provided for shall be construed to extend the time fixed herein for the 

23 final completion of the work. 

Note.— The somewhat arbitrary power referred to in the foregoing, is, as a matter 
of fact, rarely exercised; and when exercised, the greatest care is taken to make the 
amount such that it cannot be questioned. Sometimes Contractors imagine that, having 
the contract, they can demand for extras an exorbitant price, and they would be successful 
in many cases but for this saving clause. 

24 It is further covenanted and agreed by and between the parties hereto 

25 that all materials furnished and work done under this contract shall be 

26 subject to the inspection of the Supervising Architect, the superin- 

27 tendent of the building, and of other inspectors appointed by the said 

28 party of the first part, with the right to reject any and all work or 

29 material not in accordance with this contract; and the decision of said 

30 Supervising Architect as to quality and quantity shall be final. And 

31 it is further covenanted and agreed by and between the parties hereto 

32 that said party of the second part will without expense to the United 

33 States, within a reasonable time to be specified by the Supervising 

34 Architect, remedy or remove any defective or unsatisfactory material or 

35 work; and that, in the event of the failure of the party of the second 

36 part immediately to proceed and faithfully continue so to do said party 


267 



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CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


(5) 

of the first part may have the same done and charge the cost the^jof to 
the account of said party of the second part. 

It is further covenanted and agreed by and between the parties hereto 
that until final inspection and acceptance of, and payment for, all of the 
material and work herein provided for, no prior inspection, payment, 
or act is to be construed as a waiver of the right of the party of the first 
part to reject any defective work or material or to require the fulfilment 
of any of the terms of the contract. 

It is further covenanted and agreed that the party of the first part 
shall have the right to require that any particular portion of the work 
herein provided for shall be completed within such time as may be here¬ 
after definitely specified by the said party of the first part in written 
notice to the said party of the second part; and that should the said party 
of the second part fail to complete such particular portion of the work 
within the time so specified, or fail to complete the entire work contem¬ 
plated by this contract within the time or times herein stipulated or 
provided for; or fail to prosecute said work with such diligence as in the 
judgment of the party of the first part will insure the completion of the 
said work within the time hereinbefore provided, the said party of the 
first part may withhold all payments for work in place until final com¬ 
pletion and acceptance of same, and is authorized and empowered, after 
eight days’ due notice thereof in writing, served personally upon or left 
at the shop, office, or usual place of abode, or with the agent of the said 
party of the second part, and the said party of the second part having 
failed to take such action within the said eight days as will, in the judg¬ 
ment of the said party of the first part, remedy the default for which said 
notice was given, to take possession of the said work in whole or in part 
and of all machinery and tools employed thereon and all materials 
belonging to the said party of the second part delivered on the site, and, 
at the expense of said party of the second part, to complete or have com¬ 
pleted the said work, and to supply or have supplied the labor, materials, 
and tools, of whatever character necessary to be purchased or supplied by 
reason of the deiault of the said party of the second part; in which event 
the said party of the second part shall be further liable for any damage 
incurred through such default and any and all other breaches of this 
contract. 

It is further covenanted and agreed that the said party of the first part 
shall have the right of suspending the whole or any part of the work 
herein contracted to be done, whenever, in the opinion of the Super¬ 
vising Architect, it may be necessary for the purposes or advantage of 
the work, and upon such occasion or occasions the said party of the 
second part shall, without expense to the United States, properly cover 
over, secure, and protect such of the work as may be liable to sustain 
injury from the weather, or otherwise; provided that for all such sus¬ 
pensions and other delays caused by the said party of the first part the 
party of the second part shall be allowed one day additional to the time 
herein stated, for each and every day of such delays so caused, in the 
completion of the contract, the same to be ascertained by the Super- 


268 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


63 


1 

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( 6 ) 

vising Architect; provided, that no claim shall be made or allowed to the 
said party of the second part for any damages which may arise out of any 
delay caused by the said party of the first part. 

And the said party of the first part, acting for and in behalf of the 
United States, covenants and agrees to pay, or cause to be paid, unto 
the said party of the second part, or to the heirs, executors, administra¬ 
tors, or successors, of the said party of the second part, in lawful money 
of the United States, in consideration of the herein recited covenants and 
agreements made by the party of the second part, the sum of. 


And the party of the first part covenants and agrees that payments 
will be made in the following manner, viz: ninety per cent of the value 
of the work executed and actually in place, to the satisfaction of the 
party of the first part, will be paid from time to time as the work pro¬ 
gresses (the said value to be ascertained by the party of the first part), 
and ten per cent thereof will be retained until the completion of the en¬ 
tire work, and the approval and acceptance of the same by the party of 
the first part,"which amount shall be forfeited by said party of the second 
part in the event of the nonfulfilment of this contract; it being expressly 
covenanted and agreed that said forfeiture shall not relieve the party of 
the second part from liability to the party of the first part for any and 
all damages sustained by reason of any breach of this contract; provided, 
however, that no payment hereunder shall be due to the said party of the 
second part until every part of the work to the point of advancement 
reached—on account of which payment is claimed—shall be found to be 
satisfactorily supplied and executed in every particular and any and all 
defects therein remedied to the entire satisfaction of the said party of the 
first part. 

It is an express condition of this contract that no Member of Congress, 
or other person whose name is not at this time disclosed, shall be admitted 
to any share in this contract, or to any benefit to arise therefrom; and 
it is further covenanted and agreed that this contract shall not be 
assigned. 

In witness whereof, The parties hereto have hereunto subscribed 
their names this.day of.A.D. 190 . 


£ cS s 

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269 




















64 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


(7) 


We hereby certify that this contract and bond 
have been correctly prepared and compared’. 


Chief of the Law and Records Division. ( Secretary of the Treasury. 


Superintendent of the Computing Division. 


Witnesses to the signature of the Contractor: 


a 




Contractor. 


Place 
corporate 
seal here. 


Note. —The above relates to one of the most vexing questions both to the Con¬ 
tractor and to the Department, which is encountered. When a Contractor gets hope 
lessly in default, it is as bad for him as for the Department to try to push through 
In such cases he is credited with the full value of all labor and materials on the ground; 
but for all additional items to complete the work covered by the contract, the sureties 
on his bond have to pay. Usually the bondsmen take the contract to finish the work; 
and in most cases, so far as the Department is concerned, no litigation follows. 


1 

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1G 

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(l) 

BOND 

Know all men by these presents, That we,. 

... 

of the City of., County of., and 

State of., principal , and. 


of the City of., County of., and 

State of., and... 

of the City of., County of. } and 

State of., suret., are held and firmly bound unto the 

United States of America in the sum of......dollars 

(S.), lawful money of the United States, for the payment of 

which, well and truly to be made to the United States, we bind ourselves, 
our heirs, executors, administrators, successors, and assigns, jointly and 

severally, firmly by these presents. 

Scaled with our seals and dated this .day of., A.D. 190 

The condition of the above obligation is such, That whereas the 

said.ha. . entered into a certain contract, 

hereto attached, with.Secretary of the 

Treasury, acting for and in behalf of the United States, bearing date the 

.day of., A.D. 190 : Now,\i 

the said. 


shall well and truly fulfil all the covenants and conditions of said contract. 


270 








































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


65 


( 2 ) 

1 and shall perform all the undertakings therein stipulated by. 

2 to be performed, and shall well and truly comply with and fulfil the con- 

3 ditions of, and perform all of the work and furnish all the labor and 

4 materials required by, any and all changes in, or additions to, or omissions 

5 from, said contract which may hereafter be made, and shall perform all 

6 the undertakings stipulated by.to be performed in any and all such 

7 changes in, or additions thereto, notice thereof to the said suret. 

8 being hereby waived, and shall promptly make payment to all persons 

9 supplying.labor or materials in the prosecution of the work 

10 contemplated by said contract, then this obligation to be void; other- 

11 wise, to remain in full force and virtue. 

12 In testimony whereof, The said. 


13 . 

14 ., principal , and. 

15 . 

16 and..., suret 


17 have hereunto subscribed their hands and affixed their seals the day first 

18 above written. 

Signed, sealed, and delivered in 'presence of . 


Note.— It will be observed that on each page, both of form of contract and of bond, 
each type line is numbered, 1, 2, 3, etc. This is customary in all such government doc¬ 
uments, and is for the purpose of locating references, interlineations, etc. 


Sag 


19 

20 
21 
22 

23 

24 


0) 

$ 2 

is cs 
•■- 1 a> cs 

Isa 

Eh 


At first glance, this contract appears to be one-sided in that it 
confers on one side certain seemingly arbitrary power which, if used 
in the extreme, would be disastrous to any Contractor; but, as a 
matter of fact, the Department uses its extreme rights with the utmost 
caution, and generally goes more than “half-way” in disputed settle¬ 
ments. 

Where disaster occurs—such, for instance, as in a cyclonic wind, 
wrecking work in place, as happened at the Pan-American Exposition; 
or in damage by fire, as in the Baltimore conflagration--the Depart¬ 
ment promptly recommends that Congress make a reimbursing 
appropriation to be used in replacing work damaged; and that body 
always responds, recognizing a moral if not a legal obligation. 


271 























GREYROCKS, ROCKPORT, MASS. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 
For Plans, See Page 282; for Garden Front, See Page 299. 















































































































































































































































































































































































































































CONTRACTS 

AND SPECIFICATIONS 

PART II 


Prefatory Note.— Part I was intended to initiate the student in 
the fundamental principles of specification writing, by setting forth the 
nature of the preparation desirable and necessary for successful work. 
The entire field was by no means covered, nor was it the intention to state 
the only lines which could be followed. 

Part II has been compiled from various sources with the intention 
of showing different phases of the work, and aiding those students who 
have carefully worked out the more fundamental lines. 

Because some things are stated differently in one part from the 
other, is no reason for considering either line wrong. No one set of rules 
or directions will apply to all cases; and therefore the differences between 
the two parts, it is believed, will lead the student to compare in each case 
the two lines, and choose the one best adapted to the case he may have 
in mind, or else to go on and work out some third or independent line which 
will better than either fit the case. The man who thinks and reasons, 
provided he is well grounded in fundamentals, will rarely make a mistake. 

A Specification is a statement of the conditions under which a 
building is to be constructed, and of the items necessary therefor 
which are not indicated on the contract drawings. 

A Contract is a detailed statement of the agreement between the 
Owner and the Builder, for the execution of the project as required by 
the drawings and by the specification. 

GENERAL SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATION 

The specification presents the general conditions under which 
the work indicated by the drawings is to be executed. It calls for 
the kind and quality of labor and materials desired, and contains all 
the written instructions and descriptions that may be needed to 
indicate fully to the bidders just what is required to be furnished. 

Specifications must be written in language perfectly intelligible 
to all persons connected with the work; and special care should be ex¬ 
ercised, as they, together with the contract drawings, form the basis of 


273 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


the final agreement or bargain between the Owner of the proposed 
building and the Builder, which agreement is called the “contract.” 

The building to be erected is described by the Architect in two 
ways—namely, by drawings and by a written description (the speci¬ 
fication). The same experience and ability that enable him to make 
the drawings, will be required in giving the verbal statements neces¬ 
sary to express what cannot be fully shown in the design. The 
purpose of the specification is to state the character of the work and 
material, as distinguished from the sizes and' quantities shown in the 
drawings. The importance of the specification is shown in the fact 
that it takes precedence over the drawings in case of discrepancy. 

The term “specification” is used sometimes, though not common¬ 
ly among builders, as a legal expression to mean the plans, specifica¬ 
tion, and contract, which are the essential documents in connection 
with the erection of a building. 

It is advisable to block out a memorandum specification indi¬ 
cating very generally the points which will be completely covered 
in the finished copy, and to do this at the time the sketches are made, 
which indicate in a general way the scheme to be followed later in the 
contract drawings. On them a close estimate of cost can be made, 
and the necessary modifications incorporated to bring the cost of the 
work to the required sum. In the final writing, however, this memor¬ 
andum should be used only for reference, as an effort to copy any 
part bodily into the completed work is apt to introduce matter not 
desired, or to cause the omission of essential matter not considered 
at the time the memorandum was made. 

As a general rule the specification should give the quality and 
kind of material used, and the method of workmanship, leaving the 
quantities and sizes to be obtained from the plans. If this method is 
carefully followed, it makes the checking up more simple in com¬ 
pleting the plans. Changes in quantities and dimensions can be 
made on the plans, while changes in material are looked for in the 
specification. 

If the method of writing the specifications very completely, 
with a few small-scale drawings, is followed, much more will have 
to be written, especially in regard to the sizes and quantities of mould¬ 
ings, dimensions of expensive material, etc. Drawings at a scale of 
J inch to a foot will require more explanation than J-inch scale plans, 


274 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


69 


unless J-inch or f-inch scale details accompany the small-scale 
drawings. Such information, for example, as the size of wooden 
mouldings, or the number of inches required in section for a copper 
gutter, can be stated in the specification. 

The completeness and clearness of the specification generally 
govern the amounts of the bids, and also regulate the amount of extra 
charges brought in by the Contractor at the final settlement. 

Reference should be made to everything required for the build¬ 
ing, unless it is of such a nature that the drawings leave nothing to 
describe or require; but any description of work which is fully set 
forth on the drawings, is out of place. 

The specification should be correct and complete, and should be 
written by a person who fully understands, and who is in thorough 
sympathy with, the design. 

The specification, while setting forth most clearly the points 
under consideration, should not be longer than is absolutely neces¬ 
sary to convey the intended ideas; there should be no repetitions of 
requirements. 

The materials to be specified for general use, should be stated 

first in this way: “All-not otherwise specified, to be-.” 

This not only saves much repetition, but also gives a definite, stated 
material for minor places that otherwise would require long and 
tedious listing. 

Accurate specifications save money to the Owner; but if too 
verbose, they may scare the bidder, and cause unnecessarily high 
estimates. 

A simple description, giving as briefly as possible the correct 
idea to the builder, is likely to achieve a better result than a long 
treatise on what is recognized as good workmanship and material 
by any workman capable of undertaking the contract at all. 

Words should be used in their most common sense, and if an 
expression indicates only a trade term for a certain locality, it should be 
so stated. “First quality,” as a trade term, for example, may not 
mean the best in the market; “Extra No. 1” shingles are not so good 
as “Extra;” “6-cut” stone work may show many “stuns” which 
would not appear if “Good 6-cut” were called for. If the Architect 
is not fully informed on these points, he should study more carefully 
the grades of materials being put into buildings, and how they appear 


275 





70 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


on buildings where they have stood for some time. Visits to supply- 
houses, mills, shops, and stone yards, will repay the time spent. 

Such expressions as “best,” “proper,” “sufficient,” etc., are 
capable of being interpreted in very different ways according to the 
point of view of a good dr a poor workman. 

It is often necessary, in order to save superfluous lettering on the 
drawings, and also because of lack of space, to use abbreviations 
in indicating material, etc. As these abbreviations differ in various 
localities, it is always necessary to insert in the specification a “legend” 
or list of abbreviations used and their meaning. 

Each requirement should be so carefully written that there 
can be only one interpretation, leaving no doubt as to its true intent. 
If the specifier hopes to get better work through some hidden meaning 
in the specification, he is doomed to disappointment; for the more 
expensive interpretation will be used by the Contractor in making up 
his bid; and later, when the work is required, the Contractor may 
plead that, on account of the uncertainty of meaning, he should not 
be required to furnish any part without extra compensation. Make 
the specification fair and honest, for it is the basis on which the 
Architect will stand as arbitrator during the progress of the work. 

It should be remembered that it is the province of the workmen 
to comprehend and not to originate; and so the statement of what 
is to be constructed should be made very clear, leaving nothing to 
the imagination of the Contractor; a statement in the specification 
of what could be better shown on the drawings, is apt to be poorly 
comprehended by the builders. On the other hand, the Owner of 
the building is apt to think more of the specification, as he can under¬ 
stand this more clearly than he can the drawings. There should be 
nothing, however, in the specification, or in any part of the work, 
to discourage originality, personal interest, and the exercise of judg¬ 
ment on the part of the workmen, where these will not act contrary 
to the general scheme or the rapid progress of the work. 

It should be stated and understood that every Contractor is to 
report any defect or discrepancy as soon as observed, to the Architect, 
and to lend his personal interest and attention to the best possible 
execution of the whole work. 

The sets of specifications, as well as the drawings which they 
accompany, both on receiving estimates and when signed with the 


27 e 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


71 


contract, must be kept unchanged, for reference. Later changes 
must be shown by other drawings and by Addenda to the original 
specifications. 

Interlineations in a specification should not be made if there is 
time for rewriting. If made at the last moment, they should be 
signed individually at the time of signing the contract. 

All changes after the specification is completed and the contract 
let, involving extra charges, should each have a complete descriptive 
specification written, referring to the general specification. This can 
be done in the form of a triplicate letter, of which one copy is sent to 
the Contractor, one copy to the Owner, and the third remains as the 
office memorandum, or is attached to the office copy of the specification. 

The specification is sometimes written on the drawings; but 
these easily become separated, so that the specification might not be 
considered for every part of the work on which it would have a bear¬ 
ing; moreover there is usually not sufficient room on the drawings 
for going sufficiently into detail. 

Notes on drawings in the form of a specification, have these 
disadvantages:—They depart from the principle of employing: 

Specifications For Verbal ) , 

J presentation ot requirements; 

Drawings For Graphic ) 

they lead the Contractor to neglect to look at the specifications; they 
never can be complete verbal descriptions. 

The advantages which lead many Architects to specify by notes 
on drawings, are:—They are directly before the Contractor; they 
can be easily and permanently put on when making drawings; they 
show the exact location of materials mentioned. 

Specifications are usually typewritten, several copies being 
made, one copy for the owner; one to three for the Contractor; one 
office copy; and extra copies which may be used in securing estimates, 
for the inspection of Building Department, etc. The specifications 
are sometimes lithographed, printed, or mimeographed, where many 
copies are required. It is the custom, in some offices, to print in 
typewritten form, or to mimeograph the general conditions only, 
which remain the same in different specifications. Unless the general 
conditions are written in the same form as the general specifications, 
the Contractors are likely to overlook them and to neglect the direc¬ 
tions stated therein. 


277 



72 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Sometimes sketches are made in the margin of the specification, 
to indicate the use of materials or to show details that are required. 
This can be done easily if the specifications are printed or litho¬ 
graphed ; but under the present system of duplicating by typewriting, 
it is difficult to do this. This sort of information can be shown more 
completely on the regular drawings, which can be reproduced in 
sufficient quantities to explain every item. 

The writer of the specification must clearly hear in mind through¬ 
out his entire work, that the Architect is to occupy a unique position 
in carrying out the work—a position which, in almost no other 
line, is occupied hy one individual. The Architect is the confiden¬ 
tial professional adviser of his patron; and also, as the work pro¬ 
gresses, he is to he the unbiased arbitrator, often between opposing 
interests, one of which is that of his patron or employer. The 
latter is a position not only difficult but generally impossible to 
occupy at all times to the satisfaction of both parties; and as the 
unconscious influence of the patron’s interests is very apt to warp 
the judgment of the Architect in making interpretations which 
must govern, it is very necessary that in writing the specification 
the matter be stated so clearly that differences of interpretation 
will occur seldom, and that when they do occur the specification 
will give the Architect ample standing room so that his judgment 
may be accepted without either party feeling wronged. 

There are certain data that it is advisable to obtain before writ¬ 
ing the specification—such as the data obtained from test borings 
to determine the condition of the soil, also the location of sewers 
and water-supply pipes, etc. 

Preliminary estimates are generally obtained from one “reliable 
Contractor, who can be called in before the specification is com¬ 
plete, to estimate the relative cost of certain parts of the building, 
where there is some doubt as to which of two methods or materials 
to use. 

It is better, however, for the Architect to become familiar with 
the cost of different items, so that he can estimate for himself the 
cost of various schemes, unless the Owner has settled on one partic¬ 
ular Contractor to whom the work is to be let. When the “reliable 
Contractor” is called in, he appreciates fully that the time he puts 
on the estimate will be in the nature of gratuitous services or nearly 


278 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


73 


so, and therefore careful figures are not made, and often the Archi¬ 
tect and Owner are both misled. 

The opening description of the work should be straight-forward, 
clear, and concise, and the specification carefully classified accord¬ 
ing to the different trades, so that each sub-contractor and the esti¬ 
mator of every small shop may find the work he is to do definitely 
indicated. It is easy for a general Contractor to unite sub-contracts 
and let several to one firm, but very difficult to subdivide a specifica¬ 
tion where trades are not separated. 

This should not lead the Architect, however, to separate work 
among different trades where for safety, warranty, or promptness, 
certain parts of the work should all be under the control of one con¬ 
tractor, e.g., the roofer. 

Each item describes the class of material to be used and the 
kind of labor to be employed. The number of pieces and the dimen¬ 
sions are left to the plans; though, when the plans are incomplete 
on account of the small scale, the quantities and sizes must be speci¬ 
fied fully and completely. 

The usual method of arranging a specification is to classify 
the items under each building trade, and then subdivide the build¬ 
ing trades as much as possible. Commence with the work to be 
done on the foundation of the building, and carry the description 
up through the building to the roof chronologically in the order of 
construction. In this way there is less danger of omissions. Some¬ 
times it is advisable to describe a certain part entirely under the 
trade that would have general charge of it. For example, an iron 
staircase would be described under “Iron work,” and the descrip¬ 
tion would include a wooden hand-rail. Metal flashings are often 
specified to be furnished by the carpenter, mason, or plumber for 
use in connection with their work, though frequently these are pro¬ 
vided by the metal worker and set by the carpenter, mason, or plumber. 

An expeditious method of writing specifications, which may 
be employed to advantage in large offices when the writer is not 
intimately associated in the work of preparing the drawings, is to 
write each item on a catalogue card. The best sizes for this are 
either 4 by 6 inches or 5 by 8 inches. The latter is preferable, 
being the width of ordinary typewritten specifications, and large 
enough for notes and memoranda regarding each particular item. 


279 



74 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Guide cards may be used to separate these items under their different 
headings, and the items can be easily rearranged or added to at 
any point. When a new specification is written, all that is necessary 
to do is to put markers or wire clips on the cards that are to be used, 
making any changes that may be necessary in pencil on the card 
and writing or dictating any additional items for insertion. The 
whole specification can then be typewritten from these cards on 
which the “signals” have been placed, making as many copies as 
required. Whenever cards are removed from,the case, large “out” 
markers are put in their places, so that they will be returned to 
their proper locations. 

When the specifications are ready to be typewritten, they should 
be carefully checked up with the drawings and with the “Specifica¬ 
tion Reminder,” which will be explained later. 

In writing out the specification, it is advisable and usual on 
public work to number eveiy clause under the different trades in 
order. These will be found very useful for reference and corre¬ 
spondence during the work. An index may be placed at the be¬ 
ginning of the specification. 

There are many indirect items which should be fully covered 
by the specifications—for example, that the Contractor shall take 
care of certain minor points, such as clearing out rubbish, covering 
the windows, and heating the building while the plaster is drying, 
putting up staging, etc. Even when there is a general Contractor 
for a building—which would relieve both Architect and Owner of 
any direct responsibility—it saves much discussion between the 
sub-contractors if such points as these are included in the specifica¬ 
tion. 

Where there are definitely stated requirements in State or 
Municipal building laws, use the same wording or expressions in 
the specification. These are the result of long study and practical 
experience, and often the difference of a single word will confuse 
or make the meaning much less clear to Contractors. The specifi¬ 
cations may be abbreviated by referring directly to the building 
laws, and omitting what is there clearly stated. 

Electric wiring, for example, should be done according to the 
“Rules and Requirements of the National Board of Fire Under- 


280 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


75 


writers for the Installation of Electric Wiring, as Recommended 
by the Underwriters’ National Electrical Association.” 

While every specification should require that the work as a 
whole and in all details shall be carried out to the satisfaction of 
the Architect, such requirement must carry with it the full under¬ 
standing that the Architect shall be satisfied when the Contractor 
has furnished what the clear meaning of the drawings and specifi¬ 
cations calls for, and under no circumstances shall the Architect 
demand other than what is required by the drawings and specifica¬ 
tions, under the excuse that what has been furnished is not satisfac¬ 
tory to him. 

It is often desirable to stipulate that certain portions of the 
work, etc., are warranted to exercise their functions properly when 
completed, and for a certain period of time thereafter. For ex¬ 
ample, the heating specification may stipulate that the apparatus 
is to maintain a temperature of 70 degrees when that of the outside 
is at zero or 30 degrees below. Or it may be that the roofer is to 
warrant the roof to remain waterproof for a certain length of time. 
Such warranty clauses should be sparingly used, as, in case of defect 
in the portion warranted, it is generally as expensive to get the per¬ 
son who installed the defective portion to remedy it, as to get the 
work done over by another party, and the delays incident are annoy¬ 
ing in the extreme. When such warranty clause is used, it is gen¬ 
erally made an excuse for constantly changing the work from that 
specified, under the plea that, if carried out in accord with the con¬ 
tract, the work cannot be warranted. Such changes are always 
in favor of poorer work. It is generally better for the Architect 
to know just what will do the work, see that such is installed, and 
leave the warrant clause out. 

Specifying a particular make or brand of material is apt to 
carry the impression that the writer’s knowledge is limited or that 
he is unduly influenced in favor of the article specified. If a par¬ 
ticular appliance is required, it is well to except it from the con¬ 
tract, and say that the Owner will furnish a-delivered 

on the site, which the Contractor is to set in place and connect, etc. 

In large and important work it is sometimes customary for 
the Contractor to submit the names of the sub-contractors whom 
he proposes to deal with, for the approval or disapproval of the 


281 




76 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Architect. This requirement is inserted in order to prevent work¬ 
men of indifferent character getting onto the work. It is a very 
delicate problem for the Architect to pass judgment on sub-con¬ 
tractors; and if, after approval, they furnish unsatisfactory material, 
it is embarrassing to reject it if it puts the general Contractor to 
loss. This clause, therefore, as well as the warranty clause, should 
be used only after very mature consideration, and never in the less 
important work. 

In important work, specifications on electric wiring, heating, 
plumbing, ventilation, etc., are frequently prepared by consulting 
engineers employed by the Owner to arrange these points under 
the direction of the Architect. In this case the engineers prepare 
the specifications, which can be included in the Architect’s other 
specifications; and any changes that may come up during the progress 
of the work should be referred to the consulting engineer by the 
Architect, before change is made. This is quite customary in the 
erection of high buildings, where engineers are frequently employed 
to lay out the steel construction. 

But when the services of specialists in any line are required, 
it should in all cases be understood that the general scheme for 
the work should not be altered, that the Engineer should adapt 
his portion of the work so as to carry out the general plan, and should 
not insist on modifying this to suit any particular methods or appli¬ 
ances he may desire to use. 

In a building operation, four questions always arise: 

(1) What is to be done? 

(2) How is it to be done? 

(3) When is it to be completed? 

(4) What is to be the manner of payment? 

The first two questions are answered by the plans and speci¬ 
fications. 

Although the last two are finally stated in the contract, it is neces¬ 
sary that some reference should be made to them in the specifica¬ 
tion, for information to bidders. 

The periods for completion may be stated in terms of months 
and days after the signing of the contract. 


282 















































































































































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“GREYROCKS,” AT ROCKPORT, MASS. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 

Built in the Fall of 1904. Cost, without Heating (Estimated for Winter Building), a Little Under $4,500. 
For Exteriors, See Pages 272 and 299; for Interiors, See Yol. II, Page 186. 






























































































































/ 


“GREYROCKS,” AT ROCKPORT, MASS. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 
First-Floor Plan Shown on Opposite Page. 





























































































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


77 


Payments on the contract may be by: 

Stated sum, 

Cost plus a percentage, 

Cost plus a percentage with guaranteed limit, 

Cost plus a fixed sum. 

The first is the usual method of contracting. 

Full information relative to the method of payment which the 
Owner prefers and intends to incorporate in the contract, should 
be fully set forth in the specification, as this is a matter which will 
have a marked influence on bidders. 

While the first method is the usual one of awarding a contract, 
unless the payments can be arranged so that the owner pays for 
the material and labor at frequent intervals, it follows that the Con¬ 
tractor has to use considerable of his own capital or credit to carry 
the work along. For this he must be paid; and therefore, as the 
Owner generally has the funds prior to beginning work, it is advis¬ 
able to state in the specification such dates and percentage of pay¬ 
ments as will permit the Contractor to carry on the work with a 
minimum charge for the use of his own capital or credit. 

The completeness and clearness—and therefore the useful¬ 
ness—of a specification, depends on its systematic arrangement. 
The first thing to do, therefore, is to prepare a skeleton or outline 
of what is later to be the finished form. This should consist, in 
the first place, of a list of the different general branches of the work, 
such as: 

MASONRY. 

STEEL AND IRON. 

ROOFING AND SHEET METAL. 

Etc., Etc. 

Then, under each of these general heads should be set a list of sub¬ 
heads, in general, as follows; but it is not good policy to attempt 
to cover every point before beginning the writing of the specification 
proper, as, in writing, items will constantly occur to the writer in 
connection with what has already been written. 

MASONRY— 

Alterations and Shoring. 

Demolition and Removal. 

Stone Masonry. 

Brick—Terra Cotta. 

Etc., Etc. 


283 



78 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


STEEL AND IRON— 

Structural. 

Ornamental. 

Etc., Etc. 

After this skeleton has been prepared, the major part of the 
work is done, as the filling-in and detailing of requirements under 
each heading is a comparatively simple operation. 

In smaller work, when the Architect is the designer and specifi¬ 
cation writer, the matter will be or should be so in mind that no 
assistance should be required in arranging this skeleton; but in 
larger offices, where generally the first time the writer sees the draw¬ 
ings is when he begins consideration of the specifications, it is very 
desirable—in fact, necessary—for him to have some reminder of 
the items which are to be considered. These reminders were referred 
to on page 73 in connection with the card index of subjects; and as 
practice extends, these specification cards, with their accumulated 
notes, become very valuable. It is desirable, as items are observed 
in technical papers and about buildings in course of construction, 
and from conversation, to make careful and much abbreviated notes 
from day to day on the cards under the proper heading, which will 
recall the details of the case when this will be of assistance later. 

There is given on page 79 a list of headings which cover certain 
items generally needed, with occasional notes written out to illustrate 
how other notes can be made when experience furnishes the matter. 
It is especially desirable to call attention in the notes to any diffi¬ 
culties in any line of work which have been particularly noted from 
any source. 

In order to make the best use of these reminders in preparing 
a specification, the drawings, after they have been delivered to the 
specification writer, should be most carefully studied so that the 
whole scheme of design, arrangement, use, construction, and decora¬ 
tion may be well in mind. Having obtained a general compre¬ 
hensive impression, the general method of obtaining the results 
desired is next to be studied. A considerable time can be spent 
in this work to advantage. It is a good plan after what is considered 
to be a sufficient period of study, to sit down, close the eyes, and 
call up in mind the different parts as a whole and in detail. If the 
scheme then appears clear, and can be followed out understand- 


284 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


79 


ingly in mind, without reference to the drawings, then —and not 
until then —is the writer fitted to begin the work. He can then 
with surprising rapidity lay out his first line of main heads, and 
with a similar rapidity his subheads, which completed the main 
part of the work is done. Stress is here again laid on the importance 
of the clear mental comprehension of the entire scheme, as a whole 
and in detail, before a word is written. If the writer fails in this 
grasp, his specification will be neither clear nor complete, and is 
very apt to degenerate into a series of disconnected sentences with 
little or no affinity to those which precede or follow. 

After the grasping of the situation as above outlined, look 
through the lists of general headings , noting each head that applies 
to the work in question; then look under each Subdivision of the 
general headings, in a similar way noting each item that applies to 
the scheme under consideration. 


SPECIFICATION REMINDER 


GENERAL CONDITION^— 


Division of Work. 
Work to be Done. 
Quality. 

Materials and Labor. 
Delivery of Materials. 
The Contractor. 
Laying Out the Work. 
Engineer. 

Permits. 

Building Laws. 
Fences. 

Office. 

Vouchers. 

Inspection. 

Protect Work. 
Rubbish. 

Scaffolding. 


Defects. 

Assist Other Contractors. 
Cutting. 

The Architect. 

Drawings and Specification. 
Detail Drawings. 

Charges. 

Bond. 

Insurance. 

Ownership of Old Material. 
Water Supply. 

Temporary Water-Closet. 
Contingent Work. 

Award. 

Terms of Payment. 
Changes. 

Time for Completion. 


MASONRY- 


ALTERATIONS and Shoring— 
Shoring. 

Raising. 

New Openings. 


Piers. 

New Underpinning. 


285 



80 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Demolition and Removal — 


Old Building. 

Tearing Down. 

Removing Walls. 

Brick. 

Old Vaults and Cisterns. 

House Mover. 

Ownership of Old Material. 
Removal of Old Material. 

Excavation and Grading— 


Location. 

(If there is much change of level it is advisable 
to have a surveyor lay out the finished grades.) 

Clearing the Site. 

Excavate for Cellar. 

Excavate for Areas. 

Excavate for Drains. 

Excavate for Water. 

Excavate for Cesspools. 

Blasting. 

Grading. 

(If possible, have the scheme of grading laid 
out before beginning to build, in order that the 
earth excavated from the cellar may, with one 
handling, be carried to the proper location to carry 
out the scheme.) 

Footings below Frost. 

Shoring. 

Bracing. 

Temporary Piling. 

Surplus Earth. 

Save Loam. 

Trees. 

Shrubs. 

Stone Masonry— 


Lime—Cement—Sand. 

Non-staining Cement. 

Mortar—Ties. 

Facing Walls. 

Bed of Stone. 

Bond of Stone. 

Damp-Proofing. 

Coping. 

Curbing. 

Concrete Floors. 

Steps. 

Walks. 

Cut Stone— 


Stock—Limestone—Sandstone 
—Granite. 

Finish. 

Carving. 

Cleaning. 

Concrete Construction — 


Cement—Sand —Aggregate. 

Mixing. 

Reinforcing Materials. 

Blocks—Beams—Forms. 

Brick Laying — 


Common Brick—Sand Mould- 
Pressed—Enameled. 

Lime—Cement—Sand. 

Bond; Common, English, Flemish. 
Cutting. 

Wetting Brick. 

Freezing Weather. 

Bedding Window-frames. 

Chimneys, Flue-linings. 

Chimney Caps. 

Chimney Bars. 

Chases. 

Hollow Walls. 

Boiler Setting.. 

Register Openings 

Rough Fireplace Openings. 
Iron Doors. 


286 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


81 


Terra Cotta— 


Partitions, 

Fireproofing. 

Floors. 

Furring. 

Ornamental Terra-Cotta. 

Plastering— 


Grounds. 

Pebble dash. 

Wood Lath. 

Lime and Sand Mortar. 

Metal Lath. 

Hair. 

Back Plaster. 

Patent Plaster. 

Two-coat Work. 

Corner Beads. 

Three-coat Work. 

Cornices. 

Exterior Plaster. 

Relief Work. 

Tile Work—Marble and Slate- 

— * 

Fireplaces. 

Bathroom. 

Interior Marble Work. 

Walls—Floors. 

Mosaic. 

Terrazzo. 

Plumbing Marble. 

STRUCTURAL 

STEEL AND IRON— 

Qua,ity l wight. 

Bolts. 

Rivets. 

Tests. 


ORNAMENTAL IRON AND BRONZE— 

Cast. 

Steps. 

Forged 

Coal-Hole Cover. 

Grilles 

Elevator Enclosures. 

Stable Fittings. 

MISCELLANEOUS IRON— 

Fire-Escape. 

Tree Guards. 

Balconies. 

Wire Guards. 

Wheel Guards. 

SHEET-METAL WORK— 

Copper. 

Skylights. 

Lead. 

Cornice Work. 

Zinc. 

Eave Troughs. 

Gutters. 

Speaking Tubes. 

Ventilators. 

Ventilation Flues. 

Flashings. 

Heat Ducts. 


ROOF— 

Tar and Gravel 

Slate. 

Copper. 

Valley. 

Canvas. 

Flashings, 

Tin. 

Shingles. 

Snow Guards, 


287 



82 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


CARPENTER WORK— 


Framing. 

Sheathing. 

Lining. 

Flooring. 

Finish Lumber. 

Paper. 

Doors. 

Sash. 

Blinds. 

Glass. 

Window Weights and Cord. 


Exterior Finish. 

Cornice. 

Interior Finish Pine. 

“ Hardwood. 
“ “ Natural. 

“ “ for Paint. 

Closets. 

Refrigerators. 

Mantels. 

Stairs. 


Locks. 

Knobs. 

Escutcheons. 

Sash Locks. 

Sash Lifts. 

Springs. 

Hooks. 


HARDWARE— 

Knocker. 

Hinges. 

Special Hardware for Casement 
Windows. 

House Number. 

Blind Fixtures. 

Screen. 


Quality of Lead. 

“ “ Oil. 

" “ Shellac. 

“ Varnish. 

Colors. 

Putty. 

Whitewash. 


PAINTING— 

Number of Coats for Each Ma¬ 
terial. 

Finish. 

Exterior Stains. 

Metal Work. 

Roof. 

Interior Walls. 

Plumbing Pipes. 


GLASS— 

Plate—Double-Thick; Single- Stained—Ribbed; Wire 

Thick. Glazing; Cleaning. 


HEATING— 


Laying out Work. 

Cutting, etc. 

Foundation. 

Flue. 

Furnace. 

Cold- and Hot-Air Ducts. 
Registers. 


Boiler. 

Piping and Hangers. 
Valves. 

Hea* Regulator. 
Radiators. 

Tank, 

Boiler and Pipe Covering. 


288 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


83 


PLUMBING— 


Fixtures. 

Bowls. 

Closets. 

Bathtubs. 

Wash-Trays. 

Sinks. 

Urinals. 

Connection with Waste Pipes. 
Laundry Stove. 

Hot-Water Boiler. 


Water Front. 

Water Piping. 
Shut-off Cocks. 

Soil Piping. 
Branches. 

Traps. 

Refrigerator Waste. 
Back-Air Pipes. 
Fresh-Air Inlet. 


GAS— 

Pipes. Stove Connection. 

Tests. Gas Machine. 

Outlets. Gas Logs. 

ELECTRIC WORK— 

General Description of Scheme. Fixtures. 

Wire. Switchboard. 

Conduits. Switches. 

Outlets. Meter Connections. 

The above lists as given are not intended to be in any sense 
so complete as to be a sufficient guide to work in all buildings. They 
are inserted to illustrate the scheme often used in offices where the 
specification writer is somewhat unfamiliar with the work already 
laid out on the drawings. Practice differs so radically, and the 
range of building is so wide, that a comprehensive list covering all 
the multiplicity of questions that arise in connection with build¬ 
ings, would be cumbersome. But, following the lines above laid 
out, each specification writer can rapidly accumulate what he needs 
in his particular line; and the operation of seeking for new items 
of importance in practice will be a source from which much valuable 
information and experience will be obtained. 

Before proceeding further, the reader should prepare a schedule 
following the above lines, but should specify under each heading at 
least double the number of sub-items mentioned. 

He should also write a description of the character of work re¬ 
ferred to by each heading, these descriptions each to contain approx¬ 
imately one hundred words. For instance, under the head of “He-1- 
ing,” a statement along lines similar to those given below would 11 
the requirements. 


289 




84 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


HEATING 

There are five principal methods of heating dwellings—namely, 
by Fireplaces, by Stoves, by Furnace, by Steam boiler, and by 
Hot-water boiler, all adapted to fuels in common use. 

Fireplaces are suitable for mild climates, and to supplement 
more efficient apparatus in cold climates. 

Stoves are the most economical, but are often objectionable 
fixtures. 

Furnaces deliver heated air to the various rooms; and, for 
small buildings, are satisfactory. 

Steam and hot water generally supply heat from radiators in 
each room. Steam is quicker to respond than hot water; it there¬ 
fore should be used when quick changes in temperature are desired, 
and in the larger class of buildings, where it is more easily controlled. 

Hot water should be used when an even temperature at all 
times is desired. 

The accompanying specification is given to show the method 
of writing a specification for a certain building. In every case the 
Architect should consider every item that is wanted on the building, 
and should write out exactly what is desired. 

New problems are constantly arising which tax the ingenuity 
of even the experienced Architect, and which require new directions. 
Many building operations will have requirements so unusual that 
any aid except that of general experience will be of little value. As 
a rule, however, careful and constant reference to, and comparison 
with, the plans, adding to or changing similar previously written 
or printed specifications as used on past work, or separated item 
by item on cards, will give a good result. This should be carefully 
checked with the “specification reminder,” to discover omissions, 
before sending out the drawings. In work containing unusual or 
elaborate detail in intricate alterations, it will be easier to write out 
the specification completely than to alter an existing one. 

At first, with the plans closely in mind, and generally hung on 
a wall or screen near by, the specification writer should block out the 
list of headings, forming a skeleton or general synopsis of the whole 
specification. Then he should go through the different trades, check¬ 
ing, writing, and dictating, either following a card catalogue, taking 
a printed form or standard specification and filling in the blanks, or 


290 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


85 


using an old specification and interlining the changes, which are then 
copied to form the complete document. Extra care must be taken 
to cover new and important points that are likely to be insufficiently 
studied. It will be found quite difficult to make an old form apply 
to a new building, without the use of too many general terms and 
“blanket clauses.” 

Having made a thorough study of the subject, the following list 
of headings may be understood to cover the work in question. 

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS. 

II. EXCAVATING AND GRADING. 

III. STONE WORK. 

IV. BRICK WORK. 

V. LATHING AND PLASTERING. 

VI. METAL WORK. 

VII. CARPENTRY— 

Framing. 

Exterior Finish. 

Interior Finish. 

Hardware. 

VIII. GLAZING. 

IX. PAINTING. 

X. HEATING. 

XI. PLUMBING. 

XII. GAS-FITTING. 

XIII. ELECJRIC WIRING. 

After preparing the general list of headings as above, prepare the 
list of subheadings in general, thus: under “General Conditions” 
we would have the divisions “Material and Labor,” “The Con¬ 
tractor,” “The Architect,” “The Drawings and Specifications,” 
“Details,” “Time for Completion,” etc.; under “Excavation,” 
“Preparation of Site,” etc. 

The following is illustrative of the form in which the require¬ 
ments and conditions should be put: 

SPECIFICATION 

GENERAL CONDITIONS 

Materials and Labor. All materials and labor required for the 
complete execution of the work are to be of the best quality unless 
otherwise provided, and are to be furnished in place by the Con¬ 
tractor; also all scaffolding, apparatus, etc. 


291 



86 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


The Contractor. Personal superintendence is to be given by 
the Contractor to the work, and a competent foreman is to be at all 
times on the work. He is to lay out the work carefully, and will be 
held responsible for any mistakes which he, or any one in his employ, 
or any of his sub-contractors, may make. 

He is to be responsible, also, for any accidents either to person or 
property, which may occur in connection with the execution of the 
work either directly or indirectly, for which otherwise the Owner 
might suffer. 

He is to obtain all permits from the city officials required by 
ordinances; is to pay all fees for water supply, sewer connections, 
etc.; and is to follow all the requirements of the building laws whether 
incorporated in this specification or not. 

He is to be responsible for all materials, whether incorporated 
in the building or not, until the final acceptance of the work; and any 
damage there may be from any cause is to be repaired; or, if beyond 
repair, the damaged portion is to be replaced. 

He is to keep the building fully insured; and all policies are to 
be so drawn that the loss, if any, is to be paid to the Owner as his 
interest may appear. 

He is to provide such fences as will be required to protect adjoin¬ 
ing property. 

The Architect. The Architect will have charge of the work, and 
is to exercise such supervision as will enable him to determine whether 
the true spirit and intent of the drawings and specification is being 
carried out. If, in the exercise of this function, he finds that any 
employee of the Contractor is, through incompetence or wilfulness, 
a detriment to the work, he will file with the Contractor definite 
charges; and, upon the filing of such charges, the Contractor will 
discontinue the services of such employee in connection with this 
work. 

The Architect will issue on the third of each month a voucher 
calling for ninety (90) per cent of the value of labor and material 
incorporated completely in place in the building on the first of the 
month, which voucher will be honored on presentation to the Owner; 
but this clause will not require the Architect to include in the voucher 
the value of any material placed in the building which in his opinion 
does not meet the contract requirements. 


292 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


87 


The Architect will be the interpreter of the intent and meaning 
of the drawings and specification, and his decision shall be final and 
binding on both Owner and Contractor. 

Drawings and Specification. The drawings and specification 
are to be considered as co-operative; and the work or material called 
for by one and not indicated or mentioned in the other, is to be 
furnished and done as though fully treated in both. 

If no figures or memoranda are given, drawings are to be accu¬ 
rately followed according to scale; but wherever there are figures or 
memoranda, these are to be followed instead of the scale, if there is a 
discrepancy. 

Detail drawings will be furnished of such portions of the work 
as the Architect may desire to explain more fully; and any work 
constructed without such drawings (except by permission expressly 
obtained), or not in accordance with them, must be taken down and 
replaced at the Contractor’s expense. 

No changes are to be made without written order signed by the 
Architect; and the adjustment, whether allowance or extra expense, 
is to be made at that time. 

Time for Completion. Work is to commence at once, and is to 
proceed with promptness and despatch. 

Completion of work and delivery of building to Owner, to be 
six months after date of contract. Times of completion of the dif¬ 
ferent parts to be as follows, the time allowed in each case to be from 
date of signing contract. 

Foundation ready for sill.One month. 

Frame enclosed and chimney completed.Two months. 

Outside finish on.Three months and fifteen days. 

Plastering.Four months. 

Interior woodwork.Five months and fifteen days. 

Painter’s work and completion.Six months. 

(Month and day to be inserted in contract and specification for each period men¬ 
tioned above.) , 

EXCAVATION 

Note to Student.— For this part of the work, it is of advantage to 
draw a lot plan. This should show the system of drainage, which, if not 
included in the Architect’s drawings, is often not very satisfactorily studied 
or understood. This part of the work, however, often depends on local 
conditions or customs in different towns, and for that reason is not made a 
part of the general contract. The drainage and water supply are often 


293 









88 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


taken care of by the city or town authorities, the pipe being carried either 
to the lot line or to the outside of the building wall. The Architect has to 
ascertain what the system is, and to write his specification accordingly. 

A datum* line (if not already given) should be established by the 
Engineer’s level, at the sidewalk curb. This should be obtained for use in 
making the sketches and plans, and should be referred to frequently. If 
the first-floor level is determined in the studies with relation to this datum 
line —or “bench mark,” as it is often called—the location of the building 
will be much more easily determined. If the lot plan is kept separate from 
the drawings, it can be contoured to show the different levels; and sections 
can be drawn on the margin to show the slope of the land. This plan can 
also be used for locating drainage and water and gas supplies. 

The parts of the drawings referring to the excavator’s work should be 
as carefully studied as those relating to any other part of the building opera¬ 
tions. If possible, borings should be made on the lot before commencing 
the drawings, so that the character of the soil can be determined. 

A few dollars spent by the Owner for borings on the lot and for a care¬ 
ful survey, will be more than repaid by certainty in the excavator’s estimate. 

Preparation of Site. The Contractor will stake out the building, 
and will erect permanent batter-boards at such points that they will 
not be disturbed during the construction of the foundations. 

Clear away lot for building, removing soil and loam from site 
and 8 feet additional and stacking it within forty feet from the 
building where it may be used for final grading. Remove rubbish, 
cut down and remove any trees marked as condemned by Owner or 
Architect, and carefully protect all trees that are to be preserved. 

Excavation. Excavate for all work covered by this contract, to 
at least one foot outside the cellar wall to the depth shown, and no 
deeper. This includes drains, dry wells and trenches, as well as 
cellar. Dry well for refrigerator waste to be 3 feet in diameter, 6 
feet deep, with trench to same 5 feet deep and 8 feet long. 

Trench under cellar wall to slope to drain cellar. No walls or 
piers to start less than 4 feet 6 inches below surface of ground. 

Excavate for water pipe, gas, fresh-air ducts, and for drain and 
cesspool about 40 feet from house. Excavate for piazza piers and 
for chimney footings. 


♦Note. —For convenience in engineering operations, there is established in each 
locality a datum line —that is, a horizontal line passing through a certain fixed point 
marked zero (0). Levels above this are marked thus, *‘+15,’' ‘‘+20,” etc., which 
means that these particular points are 15 feet, 20 feet, etc., above the fixed point. In 
coast regions, this datum line is often fixed at low-water mark. 

All city grades are figured from the datum line; and to establish such a line at a 
building is to fix a level at the required number of feet above the original. Thus, on 
the seacoast, the levels may run down to +10 or -t-18; while in Denver, which is at com¬ 
paratively high altitude, is a datum line or bench mark + one mile Cor +5.280 feet). In 
such localities it is usual to drop the first two figures and call the bench ‘‘+80.* * 


294 




CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


89 


After mortar of foundation walls is set fill with stone and grave! 
to within 18 inches of finished grade; and after first floor joists are 
set, complete filling, tamping every foot in height. 

Grade to level shown on drawings, so as to turn water away from 
building, using earth and top-soil first removed. 

Grade at completion as directed, removing loam where filling 
is called for, and covering with 12 inches of loam for lawn, and 18 
inches depth of loam for shrub plantation. Paths where shown, 
excavated 12 inches deep, filled with gravel, made to crown 2 inches. 
Sod, 2 feet wide on border of path and lawn, and 3 feet next to 
building. Lawn to be leveled, raked clear of stones, and sown 
with best approved grass seed. To be properly watered and cared 
for until completion and delivery of building. Allow one hun¬ 
dred dollars ($100.00) for shrubs delivered, and plant same. 

Lime, Cement, and Sand. All lime to be best quality Rockland 
or its equal, freshly burned; and all cement equal to first quality 
Rosendale. Brands to be approved by Architect. All sand to be 
clean and sharp. Portland cement, first quality, equal to Alpha. 

Mortar. Except where otherwise specified, proportions to be: 

Lime mortar —One part lime to three parts sand. 

Lime-Rosendale cement mortar , or “half-cement” mortar —One 
part Rosendale cement, 1 part lime, 5 parts sand. 

Lime-Portland cement mortar —One part Portland cement, 2 
parts lime, 4 parts sand. 

Rosendale cement mortar —One part Rosendale cement to 2 of 
sand. 

Portland cement mortar— One part Portland cement to 2 of sand. 
STONE WORK 

Walls. Furnish all materials and build walls and footings as 
shown on drawings, of good local stone in irregular courses, the first 
twelve inches to be laid dry in the trenches, and the remainder to be 
laid in “half-cement” mortar. The whole to be laid to a line on 
outside face, well bonded; the joints to be thoroughly filled with 
mortar, and all to be pointed inside and outside the whole height, 
holding the trowel so as to weather the pointing on the outside. 

There shall be at least one through bond-stone to every ten 
square feet of wall. 


295 



90 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Carefully bevel the walls to receive the sills, and embed in mortar. 

Cellar window-sills to have wash formed with Portland cement. 

Cement Coating. To be given outside of wall below grade on 
the up-hill side of building, from bottom to finished grade, of mortar 
composed of one part Portland cement to one part sand. 

Cut out joints of exterior wall where exposed above grade one- 
half inch deep, and point neatly with Portland cement mortar. 

Drain Pipe and Cesspool. To be 5-inch best-glazed earthen¬ 
ware drain-pipe, furnished and laid from sewer in street to a point 
5 feet outside cellar wall, joints filled with Portland cement. Con¬ 
nection to be made by plumber. 

Construct at a point about 40 feet from house two cesspools as 
shown—one 2 feet 8 inches in diameter and 8 feet deep, with 8-inch 
brick walls thoroughly cemented inside and made water-tight. 

Also, 6 feet from same, a leaching cesspool 4 feet in diameter and 
8 feet deep, made of loose stone, laid dry. 

From iron pipe outside of building, connect house with cesspool 
by 4-inch Portland stoneware pipe. Also connect the two cesspools 
with Portland stoneware pipe as shown. 

Cemented cesspool to have tight iron cover. Leaching cess¬ 
pool to have a ventilated iron cover. 

Four-inch glazed earthenware pipe to be furnished and laid from 
dry wells to one foot above ground, for conductor drains and set iron 
pipe furnished by plumber to receive conductors. 

Cellar Floor (concrete). To be laid in basement. Level off 
with coarse gravel; settle thoroughly; and put down 3 inches con¬ 
crete, composed, to the thickness of 2 inches, of 1 part Portland cement, 
2 parts sand, and 3 parts clean, coarse, sharp gravel, well tamped; 
cover with 1-inch coat composed of 1 part Portland cement and 2 
parts sand, finished to true and even surface so that cellar will drain 
dry. 


BRICKWORK 

Brickwork —Except as otherwise specified, to be laid of hard- 
burned common brick, carefully selected for exposed work such as 
facing of chimneys above roof; all to be new, well shaped, and of 
uniform size. Brick to be laid wet in warm, dry weather, and diy 


296 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


91 


in damp or freezing weather. All mortar to be Lime Rosendale. 
Joints to be thoroughly flushed with mortar and well pointed. All 
outside exposed work to be washed down after completion. 

Chimneys. The chimneys are to be laid in Portland cement 
mortar. Build in lead counterflashing, at least 2 inches into the 
mortar joint, and turn down over the roof flashing. 

Plaster the exterior of all chimneys where not exposed. 

The chimney caps are to be of 2-inch blue stone, using only one 
piece to each chimney; the flue-holes cut through, to be one-half 
inch smaller each way than the flue below. 

All flues are to be lined with hard-burned terra-cotta one 
inch thick, set with very close joints filled with Portland cement 
mortar. 

Terra-cotta round thimbles are to be set for all smoke inlets; 
and in the ventilation flue, a square opening for registers is to be 
formed with square, smooth brick. 

Chimney bars, to support flat arches, two 2-inch by J-inch 
wrought iron, are to be placed above each fireplace, 8 inches longer 
than opening. 

Provide and build into bottom of each chimney one 8-inch by 10- 
inch cast-iron door and frame. 

Trimmer arches to be turned for hearths on center of fireplace, 
to be 2 feet wide and of length equal to hearths. Level up with cement 
to receive hearth. 

Run 4-inch by 8-inch ash-flues from first-story fireplaces to ash- 

pit. 

Finished fireplaces to be formed as shown in detail drawings— 
face, back, and fire-bed of lj-inch Philadelphia brick, with hearths 
of red, unglazed kitchen tile, or same as face, to have two 2-inch by 
J-inch bars, cast-iron throat, patent damper and slide, and ash- 
dump. After completion, each fireplace is to be kept protected. 
Samples of brick and tile are to be submitted for approval. 

Plastering.— Lathing. Lath all walls, ceilings, and partitions 
(except behind sheathing in kitchen, but including all space behind 
all other sheathing and wainscots); also all furring, studding, soffits, 
and under-side of stairs throughout first, second, and third stories, 
laundry, head of stairs to basement, and cellar ceiling (but not where 


297 



92 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


marked “unfinished” on the plans), with good spruce laths, set 
three-eighths inch apart and nailed with four r ailings to a lath. 
Break joints every sixth course, and over all door and window open¬ 
ings. All laths to be put on horizontally. Metal lath over heater 
in basement. 

Two-coat Work. Plaster all above-mentioned lathing two coats. 

The tough coat shall be best, thoroughly slaked, pure Eastern 
lime; clean sharp sand; and best, long cattle or goat’s hair, mixed 
in the proportion of 2\ bushels hair to 1 cask lime and 3 barrels sand, 
to be thoroughly worked and stacked outside of building at least 
ten days before using. Carry first coat to rough floor. All to be well 
troweled and straightened up with a straight edge. 

The skim coat shall be sand finish, of white, well washed sand, 
3 parts sand to 1 part white lime putty, floated up with cork floats, 
left medium rough; sample to be approved by Architect. 

Whitewash. Whitewash all brick or stone work, etc., in base¬ 
ment, two coats, using good lime and plaster of Paris. 

Metal corner beads (of approved make) to be furnished and set 
by plasterer throughout first floor, main house. 

Cornices. Cornices to be run in rooms listed below, as per 
detail drawings. 

Living room. 

Parlor, 

Dining room, 

Hall 


Metai Work.— Flashings. Wherever roofs come in contact 
with vertical surfaces 5-lb. lead flashings, 9 inches by 9 inches, are 
to be built into each shingle joint and turned up onto the vertical 
surface at least five inches. Over these flashings, counter-flashings 
are to be placed, built into the brickwork as above specified; or, 
where the vertical surfaces are of shingle or siding, they are to ex¬ 
tend under such surfaces at least 6 inches. 

All valleys are to be lined with 5-lb. lead extending 6 inches 
under shingles at each side. 

Eave-Trough and Conductors. The eave-troughs and con¬ 
ductors are to be of No. 26 galvanized iron, the conductors to be 
crimped 3 by 4 inches and connected six feet above ground to the 4- 
inch soil pipe to drain. 


298 





























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“GREYROCKS," AT ROCKPORT, MASS. 

Frank Chouteau Brown, Architect, Boston, Mass. 

For Street Front, See Page 272; for Plans, See Page 282; for Interior, See Vol. II. Page 186. 































































































































































































































































































































CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


93 


All work in connection with the eave-troughs and conductors is 
to be riveted when possible, and all joints soldered; and the expan- 
s'on and contraction from changes in temperature are to be guarded 
against by expansion joints or loose ends. 

CARPENTER WORK 

Framing. The building is to be fuh-frame, all framed, braced, 
spiked, and pinned in the best and strongest manner, perfectly true 
and plumb. Filling-in studs will be nailed, and door and window 
caps cut into studs. No woodwork shall come within one inch of a 
chimney; and framing must be arranged to avoid cutting for pipes, 
chimney, etc. Truss all openings over three feet wide. 

Timber, except where otherwise specified, to be of spruce. 
All timber throughout the building to be full and square to the di¬ 
mensions indicated, well seasoned, and free from large or loose knots, 
sap, shakes, or other imperfections impairing durability or strength. 

Dimensions to be as follows:— 

Sills, 6 by 8 inches. 

Girders, 8 by 10 inches. 

Posts, 4 by 8 inches. 

Girts, 4 by 8 inches. 

Ledger boards (used only in subordinate framing), 1 by 64nch hard 
pine. 

Braces, 3 by 4 inches long. 

Studding, 2 by 4 inches, 16 inches on centers. 

Door and window studs, double, 2 by 4 inches. 

Door and window heads 3 by 4 inches. 

Partition caps, 2 by 4 inches, hard pine. 

Partition soles, 2 by 4 inches. 

Joists, first and second floors, 2 by 10 inches; attic, 2 by 8 inches 
—16 inches on centers. 

Plate, 2 by 4 inches, double, breaking joints. 

Rafters, 2 by 8 inches, 20 inches on centers. 

Valley rafters, 3 by 10 inches. 

Ridges, 2 by 8 inches. 

Piazza and porch girders, 4 by 8 inches. 

Piazza and porch sills, 4 by 8 inches. 

Piazza and porch floor beams, 2 by 8 inches, 20 inches on centers. 

Halve (or frame and pin) sills at angles. Frame comer post, 
and door and window studs to sill and girt. Floor beams to be 
notched down on sill, and gained in. 


299 



94 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Double joists under all partitions not over partitions below 
running parallel with the joists, where supports to span are 10 feet 
or less; under all other, triple the joists. 

All headers and trimmers 8 feet long or less are to be doubled; 
all longer, tripled. 

Bridge all floors every eight feet with 1 by 3-inch pieces cut 
diagonally and double-nailed at each end. 

All studs are to be 2 by 4 inches, 16 inches on centers, straight 
and plumb. Partitions directly over walls and girders in cellar, or 
with partition caps below, are to run down to rest on them. Strongly 
truss all partitions not supported from below. Spike studs at comers. 
Line sliding-door pockets with J-inch matched sheathing. 

Piazza joists to pitch 1 inch in 5 feet away from house. 

Main Roof. To be framed in the strongest manner, with valley 
rafters carried to ridge or hips. All hips and ridges to be main¬ 
tained perfectly straight. Rafters to be notched over the plate, and 
spiked. Double the rafters at each side of dormer openings; 4 by 
8 inch header, 8 feet above top floor. Partitions to be carried up 
to support roof wherever practicable. All to be thoroughly tied, and 
made perfectly secure and strong. Collar beams, 2 by 6 inches, 
8 feet 2 inches above attic floor. 

Dormers to be framed with 4 by 4-inch corner posts, 2 by 4-inch 
studding and plate, and 2 by 6-inch rafters. Studding to be notched 
1 inch on rafters and extend to the floor. 

Boarding. Cover all roofs and frame walls with good, sound 
spruce boards not over 10 inches wide; roof square-edged; walls 
matched and laid diagonally. Cover walls with “Neponset” black 
sheathing paper, or its equal. 

Shingles. Cover all roofs with “Extra” sawed cedar shingles, 
laid 5 inches to the weather, with two nails to each shingle. Double¬ 
shingle all hips. Ridge to be finished with 6 by f-inch saddle boards. 

Walls. Cover all walls with “clear” sawed cedar shingles, 5J 
inches to the weather. 

Exterior Finish. Exterior finish not otherwise specified, to be 
worked from good cypress, clear of sap, shakes, and large or black 
knots, following elevation and detail drawings; and to be put up 
in a skilful manner, with close joints and with nails sunk for puttying. 
Joints exposed to the weather, to be matched and painted with thick 


300 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


95 


white lead before putting the pieces together. The painter to prime 
finish before or immediately after putting up. 

Main Cornices. To be according to detail drawings, with 5 by 
7-inch cypress gutter, fascia, planceer, rebated 1 f-inch belt above 
clapboards, mouldings, dentil course, and brackets. 

Cellar Hatchway. To have 2-inch plank treads' on 2-inch 
carriages, 16 inches on centers; 2-inch plank sills, and trap-door 
frame, bolted to masonry. Case with J-inch cypress, and make doors 
of narrow cypress, the doors to be well cleated. Make water-tight. 
To have heavy strap hinges and proper fastening. Single door at 
foot of stairs. 

Porch and Piazza Floors. To be laid with f-inch by 3-inch 
Georgia pine dressed one side, upper edge eased off; laid f inch 
apart, nailed with 8-penny nails. Finish with rounded nosing and 
f-inch by 1-inch mouldings. Floors to pitch to throw off water. 

Outside Steps. To be constructed with 2 by 10-inch plank 
carriages, 16 inches on centers. 

Treads of outside steps to be of f-inch by 4-inch hard pine 
strips, with rounded nosings and coving under, returned at the 
ends. Risers f-inch thick. 

Ceiling of covered porch and piazza to be of f-inch by 2|-inch 
tongued, grooved, and beaded North Carolina pine. 

Columns. To be built up of white pine, with turned shafts of 
diameter as shown for lower third and diminishing slightly above, 
with moulded caps and moulded bases. 

Balustrade. At floor and at roof of porch and side piazza, 
and over dining-room bay, to be of 2f-inch stock, 2 inches apart, 
turned. 

Posts. Posts on porch and piazza roofs are to be built up 
with turned finials, and supported by pieces running up from plate 
or sill inside of posts. 

Top rail to be built up and moulded; lower rail, 2 by 3 inches, 
solid, beveled. 

Window-Frames and Scuttle. Plank frames in stonework in 
basement, except where shown double-hung, are to be of If by 
6-inch pine, with f by 1 f-inch moulded staff bead, and 2f-inch sill. 
Frames to be rebated on the outer edge for screens. Sash to be hung 
at the top, to swing in. 


301 



96 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


All windows shown with meeting rail, or unless otherwise 
specified, to have pine frames made for double-hung sashes, with 
f-inch hard pine pulley stiles, tongued into outside casings, beads, 
f-inch ground casings, If-inch yokes, 2f-inch sills to pitch If inches, 
f-inch by 5-inch outside casing over boarding, with If by 2f-inch 
back band window caps as shown. To have 2-inch bronze-faced 
axle pulleys. 

Scuttle. To be 2 feet by 2 feet, with plank frame 6 inches high. 
Heavy strap hinges, and fixtures to hold cover at any angle. Frame 
and cover to be tinned, 

Door-Frames and Doors.— Outside Door-Frames. To be made 
from clear pine stock, If inches thick, rebated and beaded on inner 
edge, and with 1 f-inch hard pine thresholds. Casing of outside 
door-frames to correspond with windows. 

Inside Door Frames. All inside swinging doors to have lf- 
inch double-rebated and beaded frames of pine or whitewood to 
match adjacent finish. Veneer for other woods with f-inch veneer 
on 1 f-inch pine. 

Sash. Sash to be of white pine, unless otherwise specified. In 
first story If inches thick; in second and third stories, and all of ell, 
to be If-inches thick; in cellar, If inches thick. Large one-light 
sash to have 1 f-inch meeting rails. Sash not to be stained. 

Doors . Doors, except stock doors, to be paneled and moulded 
according to scale and detail drawings. All panels to be loose and 
not glued or nailed. Tenons to have f-inch haunches. Outside 
veneered doors to be 2f inches thick; doors 3 feet wide and over> 
to be 2 inches thick; all others, If inches. 

Front and Rear Hall Doors. Are to be 2f inches thick, of 
white pine, veneered inside to match vestibule, lower panels raised, 
upper panel glazed with polished plate glass. 

Other Outside Doors. To be 1 f-inch pine stock sash doors, 
as shown, with wood muntins, glazed with double-thick glass. 

Sliding Doors. To have astragal joint at center, and f-inch 
by 1 f-inch friction mould all around; to slide on Richards or other 
approved patent hangers, on birch track. 

Dwarf doors for wardrobes, cupboards, pantry, etc., to be solid 
paneled, If inches thick. 

Build cellar door of f-inch stock. 


302 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


97 


Doors not veneered, to be of solid pine, whitewood, cypress, 
or birch, to match room. 

Doors in rooms having hardwood finish, to have thoroughly 
kiln-dried, white pine core, with solid mouldings and f-inch veneer¬ 
ing of kiln-dried wood f-inch on edges, well glued on both sides 
to match hardwood finish of rooms. If one of two adjacent rooms is 
to be painted, veneer door with hardwood of other room, on both sides. 

All panels over 15 inches wide to be glued up. 

Stock Doors. To be If inches thick, stock sizes, with plain 
panels and flush mouldings on both sides, 4 panels. Architect to 
approve sample showing quality and arrangement of panels. 

Blinds. Blinds are to be hung for all windows. They are to 
be of cypress or of white pine, If inches thick. Mark each blind 
to correspond with mark on window-opening. 

Screens. To be furnished and set, for all outside doors and 
windows that open; made from best, clear, thoroughly seasoned 
white pine, J-inch thick, to be stained and varnished three coats. 
Screens are to be fitted with lifts, springs, and runs, so that they 
can be used for either upper or lower half of sash, with adjustable run. 

Wood frames to be covered with 14-mesh best approved gal¬ 
vanized wire, using heavy 13-mesh for doors and cellar windows. 

Grounds and Furring. Furr ceilings and rafters in finished 
portion of attic with 1 by 2-inch spruce furring strips, 12 inches 
on centers, nailed to every beam; and furr out in finished attic rooms 
for 3-foot 6-inch walls, also for plastering next basement walls, 
with 2 by 4-inch studding set flat. 

Put grounds for f-inch plastering around all door and window 
openings where there is no ground casing; and for base, wainscot, 
wood cornice, etc., as directed. Two grounds behind base. 

Put corner beads on all projecting angles; secure well; set 
true and plumb. 

Under-Floors. Lay under-floors, except in basement, of good, 
square-edged spruce boards, surfaced on one side to even thick¬ 
ness, and nailed to every bearing with two 8-penny nails. End 
joints to be cut over beam in every case. 

Sheathing Paper. Lay two thicknesses of approved sheathing 
paper between the under and the finished floors. 


303 




98 CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Interior Finish.— Material, Etc. All stock to be best quality, 
unless otherwise specified, free from knots or sap, thoroughly sea¬ 
soned or kiln-dried. All to be smoothed, scraped, and sandpapered 
by hand before putting up and at completion; such work as is to 
have a natural finish, to be properly cleaned. No interior finish to 
be taken into building until plastering is dry. 

Priming back of Finish. Standing finish to be given a prim¬ 
ing coat on back by Contractor furnishing interior finish before it 
leaves the shop. 

Curved Finish. Is to be sprung on or worked from large stock, 
so that no kerf marks can be seen. 

Main House Finish. All finish on main part of house, except 
inside of closets, to be moulded. 

Service Finish. All parts of the building devoted to service 
and inside of closets, to have flat finish. 

Wainscot Sheathing. Four feet high, North Carolina pine, to 
be set in back entry, kitchen, and bathroom, matched and beaded 
like approved sample, J inch by 2\ inches, with lj-inch rebated cap 
and no base. 

Paneled Wainscot. To be 3 feet high, paneled as shown, with 
raised panels. To have 6-inch base, moulded cap, f-inch rails 
and stiles, loose panels. 

Schedule: —To be used in dining room. 

Birch. Unless otherwise specified, all birch to be best selected 
first quality, red birch, of even color. 

Schedule: —To be used in dining room. 

Oak. Unless otherwise specified, all oak to be best selected 
thoroughly seasoned American quartered white oak, to show good 
grain, and to be free from shakes, knots, stains, or any other imper¬ 
fections. 

North Carolina Hard Pine. Unless otherwise specified, to be 
selected first quality. 

Schedule: —To be used as follows: 

Back Entry. 

Kitchen. 

Pantry. 

China Closet. 

Bathroom. 


304 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


99 


Picture Moulding. Of same wood as finish, around principal 
rooms of first story, 1J by 2\ inches; around all chambers, second 
story, main house, \ inch by f inch. Unless otherwise directed, 
to be 1 foot 6 inches below ceiling; and where there is a cornice, 
i inch below cornice. Picture moulding to be finished by painter, 
except last coat, before putting up. 

Closets. To have high shelf and strips all around, for clothes 
hooks. Unless otherwise directed, shelf to be J inch by 14 inches, 
5 feet 10 inches above floor, with hook rows at 4 feet 6 inches and 
5 feet 6 inches above floor. 

Linen Closet. To have counter shelf, with four drawers below, 
and with shelves above, 16 inches apart, extending to ceiling; these 
to be fitted with doors hinged at bottom to drop down. 

China Closet. To have counter shelf 2 feet 8 inches above 
floor; paneled, hinged doors and 8 drawers, one drawer subdivided, 
under; hinged, glazed doors and 5 shelves, over. Frame for sink. 
High closet over sink, to have glazed doors and 3 shelves. To have 
8 inches clear space over counter shelf. 

Pantry. To have counter shelf as shown 2 feet 8 inches high, 
with four f-inch by 14-inch shelves above, and 4 drawers below, one 
drawer being divided for knives, etc.; space for 2 flour-bins with doors; 
remainder of space to have shelving enclosed by sheathed doors. 
All this to be of clear white pine or white wood, for natural finish. 

Broom Rack. To be put up in broom closet or in cellar stair¬ 
way; to have cast-iron holders for sweeping and whisk brooms, 
dustpan, fire bucket, etc., to be included in hardware. 

Tank in Attic. To be built of 2-inch plank, tongued and 
grooved, fastened together with iron rods and nuts, to be well cleated. 
To be 4 feet by 4 feet by 2 feet. 

Plumbing Strips. To be put up to support pipe where re¬ 
quired by plumber. Water-closet seats and tanks, except in attic, 
to be furnished by plumber. 

Mantels. Allow a total sum of $125.00 for wood mantels 
delivered at house, to be selected by Owner, set by carpenter, and 
finished by painter. 

Finish Floors. Upper floor is not to be laid where there are 
double floors, until standing finish is all in place. All lining floors 
to be thoroughly repaired and cleaned before finish floor is laid. 


305 



100 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Oak Floors. To be in first floor of main house, except in 
kitchen, of matched quartered-oak flooring, | inch by 2\ inches, 
clear, thoroughly seasoned, and kiln-dried, blind-nailed to every 
bearing with 8-penny nails, laid over rough floor, to be planed off, 
scraped, and sandpapered ready for finishing. Protect properly. 

Hard Pine Floors. Hard pine floors, in kitchen, pantries, and 
bathroom, to be of J-inch by 2J-inch matched-rift Georgia pine. 

Hardware. To cost one hundred and fifty dollars ($150.00) for 
all trimmings of doors and windows, and fittings in china closet 
and pantry, closets, drawers, etc., allowance to cover net cost to 
Contractor; Architect or Owner to select hardware where he chooses; 
and Owner to have benefit of any deduction from allowance. Car¬ 
penter to furnish correct list of hardware, and to put it on carefully 
and in workmanlike manner. 

Painting.— Samples. Samples of all colors to be submitted 
for Architect’s approval. 

Knots and Dejects. Sap, pitch, knots, and similar defects, to 
be covered with good-quality shellac. 

Number of Coats. Unless expressly so indicated, priming and 
shellacing is not to count as a coat in this specification. 

Exterior Finish. All dressed exterior finish, blinds, and sash, 
to be painted two coats, after priming, of white lead and linseed oil 

Hard Pine. Pulley stiles and floors, and steps of porches, to 
receive two coats oil, well rubbed in. 

Following is a general memorandum of exterior painting. This 
is to be compared with plans, and all work is to be left with painter’s 
finish complete. 

Schedule: — 

Finish, 2 coats paint after priming. 

Porch Floors, 2 coats oil. 

Blinds, 3 coats. 

Metal, 3 coats. 

Shingles, natural. 

Inside Finish. Except where otherwise specified, all inside 
finish is to be well filled, and is to have one coat stain and shellac 
and two coats of dead hard oil finish. All work about kitchen and 
bathrooms to have two coats of hard oil with high gloss. 

Ivory White. Where indicated, give one coat shellac, then 3 
coats lead and oil paint, sandpapering each coat; then 2 coats white 


306 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


101 


lead, zinc, and white varnish, rubbing down with pumice-stone and 
oil; sample and tint to be approved. 

Whitewood Finish. Whitewood and other finish, unless other¬ 
wise specified, to have three good coats lead and oil. Color as 
approved; last coat to have suitable proportion of zinc, and to be 
left with flat or oil finish. 

Hardwood. Treat hardwood finish according to best methods 
with potash; give coat of oil or paste filler; clean off; give 4 coats 
of white shellac, sandpapering after each coat except last, which 
is to be rubbed to dull finish with pumice-stone and oil. 

Enamel White. Give one coat shellac; then 4 coats lead and 
oil paint, sandpapering each coat; then 2 coats white varnish, rubbed 
each with pumice-stone and oil, sample to be approved. 

Standing Hard-Pine Finish. Standing hard-pine finish to 
be given one coat approved primer and filler, sandpapered; one 
coat approved inside spar varnish, rubbed down; and one coat 
approved inside spar varnish, flowed on. 

Schedule: —Kitchen, pantry, serving room, bathroom. 

Bathtub. Bathtub to be painted outside, four coats; last coat 
to be an enamel gloss coat. 

Exposed Piping. All piping that shows, to be given one coat 
of white shellac. 

Plaster Walls and Ceilings. Plaster walls, but not ceilings, 
in kitchen, pantry, and china closet and throughout bathroom, to 
be painted 1 coat sizing and 3 coats paint, last coat to contain varnish 
to leave gloss. All ceilings to be sized and tinted. 

Glazing.— Plate Glass. Furnish and set J-inch American pol¬ 
ished plate glass for large lights in main house. 

Double-Thick Glass. Glass not otherwise specified, to be 
first-quality double-thick German or American glass. 

At completion, all glass to be thoroughly cleaned from oil, 
putty, paint, mortar, and plaster, and to be left whole. 

Heating.— Furnace. Provide and set up complete, where 
iiown on plans, a hot-air furnace of approved make, to be of cast 
iron, with stated and sufficient area of grate and heating capacity 
to keep building at 70° temperature, Fahrenheit, when thermometer 
is at zero outside. 


307 



102 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Smoke Pipe. To be 9-inch black iron pipe, fitted with close- 
fitting damper, also check-damper and proper cleanouts. 

Tinwork. Furnish and set warm-air pipes and register boxes, 
to be of bright IX tinplate. Mark each pipe with the name of 
room it supplies. Cover risers with metal lath in partitions before 
plastering. 

Dampers, Etc. Dampers for warm-air pipes, netting for register 
boxes, tin collars, casings, lining tin for protection from fire, to be 
supplied and set by Contractor. 

The cold-air box is to be No. 24 galvanized iron, with all joints 
riveted tight, and with such bracing as will effectually prevent the 
sagging of the top. It is to be fitted to the cold-air inlet and at delivery 
inlet, and is to have a balanced, close-fitting damper which, when 
open, will give full passageway for air. 

Registers. Furnish registers and connect tc pipes, with valves 
in each. Registers to be of black-Japanned cast iron, with tin 
boxes and borders. In library, register is to be bronze; and in re¬ 
ception room, of white enamel, approved quality and design. 

Schedule :—Registers are to be laid out according to an approved 
schedule submitted by each bidder, showing size, finish, etc., for each 
room, with size of supply pipe. Locations are to be as shown on Ians 
or as approved in building, before proceeding with work. 

Plumbing.— Materials, Connections, Etc. All drain, soil, waste, 
and vent pipes, and all fittings, are to be extra-heavy plain cast iron, 
painted outside 2 coats red lead. 

Joints. All joints in cast-iron pipe are to be made tight with 
oakum and lead, well calked. 

Lead Pipes. All lead, waste, and vent pipe branches are to be 
of best-quality drawn lead, of the following weights per foot: 


l^-inch. 

.3 lbs. 

2 -inch. 


3 -inch. 


4 -inch. 



Connections of Lead and Iron Pipes. All connections of lead 
and iron pipes are to be made by heavy brass ferrules, same size as 
lead, calked with lead. 

Joints between ferrules and lead pipes, to be wiped. 

All lead pipe joints to be wiped. 


308 







CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


103 


Supports. All vertical lines of soil and waste pipes, if not 
carried to drain below cellar floor, are to rest on brick piers at their 
base. 

All vertical lines of iron pipe are to be held in place by pipe 
hangers or wrought-iron clamps, placed 5 feet apart. In horizontal 
lines, they must be not more than 10 feet apart. 

All lead pipes are to be secured in place with metal tacks or 
brass clamps, placed 3 feet apart; and horizontal pipes are to be 
supported their entire length by carrying strips. 

All brass pipe to be secure by brass pipe holders approved by the 
Architect. 

Miscellaneous. All horizontal drain and waste pipes are to have 
a fall of not less than } inch to the foot. 

All changes in direction must be made with Y (45°), J (22£°), or 
i\ (11 i°) branches. 

All connections with horizontal pipes must be made by Y 
branches. TYs (sometimes called “Sanitary Ts”) may be used on 
vertical pipes. 

All exposed brass-work to be nickel-plated, except in basement 
and kitchen, where it is to be polished. 

Cleanouts. Set Ys with extra-heavy brass screw-caps at each 
bend in horizontal lines, and 15 feet apart in straight lines; also 
cleanouts at ends of all horizontal lines. 

All cleanouts to be same diameter as pipes with which they 
are connected. 

Traps and Vents. Every fixture must be separately trapped. 
No traps are to be less than lj inches in diameter. Each set of trays 
to have one trap. 

All traps must be vented—4-inch traps by 2-inch branches; 
2 inch and IJ-inch traps, by lj-inch branches. 

Roof Flashings. All joints between roof and iron pipe must be 
made tight with 6-pound lead or 16-ounce copper flashings. 

Tests. The water test must be applied to the entire system 
of piping, in the Architect’s presence and to his satisfaction. All 
pipes and connections must remain uncovered until they have 
passed the test. 

On completion of the work, after all fixtures are set, the smoke 
test will be applied, and must prove satisfactory to the Architect. 


309 




104 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


Drains, Soil and Waste Pipes, and Vents. The plumber will 
make proper connections from point 10 feet outside of building, 
with a drain, by 5-inch iron pipe. 

Just inside house wall, place a 5-inch running trap with two 
cleanouts; and 5-inch fresh-air pipe from house side of trap to a 
point not less than 15 feet from building, opening one foot above 
ground, with return bend. 

Continue drain 5 inches in diameter under cellar wall, and 
connect the various soil and waste pipes with same. 

The trap on main drain must be placed in an accessible brick 
manhole, with 8-inch walls, and covered with stone or iron cover; 
and the drain pipes must be laid in a brick trench with stone or 
iron cover. 

Set, where shown on plans, lines of 4-inch soil pipe, or 2-inch 
waste pipe, as necessary, with proper connections to receive the 
various fixtures. Carry pipe through roof, and one foot above 
same, increased one inch in diameter from a point below roof; ends 
above roof to be left free and unobstructed. 

For each line of fixtures, set a 2-inch pipe, with fittings for the 
various vents. Connect into soil pipe below lowest fixture, and at 
top well above highest fixture. 

All water-closets are to have 2-inch local vents of nickel-plated 
copper connected to 3-inch spiral galvanized pipe, and carried to 
chimney, as directed by Architect. All joints in pipes, to be soldered 
tight. 

Under refrigerator, place a copper-lined box 12 by 8 by 6 inches. 
Carry lj-inch lead waste pipe from box to basement, with end 
turned up so as to form a water-sealed trap and capped with light 
flap valve, to waste into sink or other receptacle provided for the 
purpose. 

Fixtures.— Water-Closet. In basement—one washdown closet, 
with metal outlet of approved pattern, and with oak seat (no cover) 
attached to bowl with heavy hinges. Plain 12-ounce copper-lined 
siphon tank, cast-brass gooseneck, valve, high-pressure ball-cock, 
iron brackets, chain and pull, and l^-inch brass flush-pipe. Brass- 
work to be polished. 

In bathroom—one siphon-jet closet, with water-covered out¬ 
let connection between earthenware and waste pipe; lj-inch cherry 


310 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


105 


seat and cover, with heavy hinges, attached to bowl. Cherry serv¬ 
ice box tank, 8 gallons’ capacity, brass brackets, high-pressure ball- 
cock, and lj-inch brass flush-pipe. Brasswork to be nickel-plated. 

Lavatory. In bathroom—one 15 by 19-inch straight back, 
accessible overflow basin, with brass plug in bowl, operated by rod 
outside of basin (approved pattern). Bolts and nuts through rim 
of basin. Top of basin ground. Heavy low-down pattern com¬ 
pression-cocks, disc handles; ^-inch iron-size brass supply pipes; 
1^-inch deep-seal S-pattern trap; plain brass brackets of design 
approved by Architect. 

Marble slab to be Italian of best quality, highly polished, and 
of size and shape as shown on plans, with back 12 inches high. 

Slab to be If inches thick; back, f inch thick. 

Brasswork to be nickel-plated. 

Bath. In bathroom—one 5-foot guaranteed-quality, enameled - 
iron, 3-inch roll-rim bath, flat bottom, approved pattern, with f-inch 
heavy combination compression-cock, disc handles, f-inch supply 
pipes, lj-inch connected waste and overflow pipes, and plug and 
chain. Outside of bath to be finished by painter. To waste through 
lj-inch bath trap set in floor. 

Kitchen Sink. One 36-inch by 24-inch by 8-inch soapstone 
sink, with 12-inch back, and soap dish. Set on galvanized-iron 
standards. To waste through 6-inch lead trap. Supply through 
f-inch compression bibs. Hose end on cold cock. Brasswork to 
be polished. 

In china closet—-one 24 by 14-inch recessed, 18-ounce, tinned- 
copper sink, with lj-inch standing waste and overflow. Waste 
same as in case of kitchen sink. Supply through tall gooseneck, 
heavy-pattern compression-cocks. Hose end on cold cock. Brass- 
work to be nickel-plated. 

In laundry—two 24-inch soapstone trays, with 12-inch back, 
and soap dish, plugs, and chains. Set on galvanized-iron standards. 

Range Boiler. One 40-gallon copper boiler on galvanized 
stand. Connected to range by f-inch brass pipe. 

All fixtures, except water-closets, to be supplied with hot and 
cold water. 

Water Supply.— Materials , Etc. All cold-water pipes and fit¬ 
tings are to be galvanized iron; and all hot-water and circulating 


311 



106 


CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


pipes are to be iron-size brass, semi-annealed, with all fittings of 
brass. 

Where exposed, brass or nickel-plated pipes are to be supported 
by brass or nickel-plated hangers. 

All exposed supply pipes in bathroom and toilet rooms, to be 
nickel-plated brass, semi-annealed; in kitchen, polished brass. 

All risers to have stop and waste, round way same size as pipe, 
in accessible position in cellar, properly tagged. 

All supply pipes and branches, to have proper pitch so that 
they may be readily emptied at their lowest point; and each branch 
supply of fixtures, to have compression stops, with stuffing-box 
close to cocks. 

Make connection with water main in street by f-inch, 4-pound 
lead pipe; and carry same into building. Just inside wall, place a 
f-inch “Simplex” stop, with f-inch stuffing-box hose bib on house 
side. From stopcock, carry galvanized pipe along on basement 
ceiling, and take branches to supply various fixtures, as may be 
necessa 

From f-inch main, take branches as follows: 


For ‘risers.£ inch. 

For sill-cocks. f inch. 

For tank in attic.f inch. 

Supplies to fixtures will be: 

To lavatory and water-closet tanks. \ inch. 

To baths, sinks, and washtrays... .. £ inch. 

From tank in attic to hot-water boiler.£ inch. 


In attic, where directed by Architect, line a 4 by 4 by 2-inch 
tank with 14-ounce tinned copper, fitted with f-inch high-pressure 
ball-cock and proper valves. Overflow to run to roof or to laundry 
traps in basement, as may be directed by the Architect. 

Set, where directed by Architect, two f-inch nickel-plated 
wheel-handle sill-cocks, with stuffing-box. Inside of wall, place 
a f-inch “Simplex” stop and waste. 

Hot-Water System. Connect hot-water boiler with tank by 
f-inch pipe. Carry f-inch brass pipe from boiler, with branches 
as specified to supply the various fixtures, and |-inch brass return 
to boiler. The entire system to circulate freely and thoroughly. 


312 









CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


107 


From highest point of system, carry J-inch expansion pipe to 
tank, discharging, over top of same. Place stop-cocks on supply 
to boiler and from same. 

Gasfitting.— Description. Provide and put in gas piping ac¬ 
cording to this specification, and as shown on plan, according to 
the rules of the local Gas-Light Company. 

Cutting to be done by carpenter, not by gasfitter. No floor 
beams to be cut further than 2 feet from bearings. 

Piping. Piping to be wrought-iron; fittings, of galvanized 
malleable iron, set with red lead, firmly fastened. Make sure that 
pipe is free from obstructions, before placing in position. Gas- 
fitters’ cement not to be used. 

Following is the scale of sizes of pipes and number of burners 
(not outlets) to be supplied therefrom. 

Longest run in feet 20 30 50 70 100 150 

Size, pipe, inches f £ f 1 \ 2 

Number of burners 2 4 15 25 40 7u 

Testing. Piping to be tight under pressure of air equal to 
column of mercury 6 inches high. Mercury to stand without fail¬ 
ing for half an hour. Outlet caps to be loosened to show that 
they affect testing apparatus, and that there is no obstruction in pipes. 


313 




FRONT AND REAR VIEWS OF RESIDENCE AT CLEVELAND, OHIO 

Frost & Granger, Architects, Chicago, Ill. 












THE ARCHITECT IN HIS LEGAL 
RELATIONS. 


CONTRACTS. 

It is often wise for an architect to regulate his course with 
regard to legal considerations. An architect in active practice 
cannot acquire such a knowledge of the principles of law as will 
enable him to dispense with expert advice in unusual circum¬ 
stances, or in matters of great importance. The trained power of 
legal reasoning which, as well as an accumulated knowledge of law, 
is part of the equipment of a good lawyer, and which even in 
apparently simple situations is constantly called into use, is not to 
be attained by a man whose chief energy is given to another pro¬ 
fession. Nevertheless, it is important for an architect to have 
some knowledge of the nature of legal considerations and of the 
legal principles of commonest application. 

In the following pages will be found brief general statements 
of the law upon certain matters with which an architect is much 
concerned, and suggestions as to the application of these princi¬ 
ples to his business. It should be mentioned that the law in 
different states differs widely in details; it is impossible here to go 
into such details; and what is given is intended to provide such 
an understanding of principles as will give the student a certain 
knowledge of the nature of his legal rights and duties, some con¬ 
ception of the nature of the mistakes which are possible, and of 
the precautions which may be taken, so as to constitute a practical 
safeguard in everyday business. 

It is proposed to present first a general statement of legal 
principles largely affecting the relations into which an architect is 
brought in the practice of his profession. 

THE LAW OF CONTRACTS. 

The building contract, commonly made between the owner 
and builder, confers certain powers upon the architect. While the 
latter is not a party to this contract, and so cannot enforce it, he 


315 



2 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


is by reason of it drawn into the contractual relations of others. 
For this reason alone, the branch of the law dealing with contracts 
is an important one to him. Moreover the architect may have 
occasion to supervise or assist in the making of contracts in behalf 
of the owner; while in the important matter of right to compensa^ 
lion, the architect is dependent upon the law on this subject. 

Express Contracts and Contracts Implied in Law. When 
competent persons make a contract their rights are fixed thereby. 
If, however, without any express contract, one person gives services 
or goods which another person accepts, and if there is no under¬ 
standing that the transaction is a gift, the person giving the ser¬ 
vices or goods is not without a right to compensation. The law 
imposes an obligation upon the person receiving the benefit to 
make compensation to the person from whom he receives it. This 
obligation is sometimes called an implied contract, as if, in accept¬ 
ing the benefit, it is impliedly agreed to make recompense. This 
principle is of great importance and frequent application. It will 
be seen later that it is applied not only when there is no express 
contract, but also in some cases where an existing express contract 
for some reason cannot be enforced. 

The principle above stated, that a contract once made by com¬ 
petent parties fixes their rights, is fundamental. Suppose A sues 
B upon an implied contract for material furnished, claiming $100 
as the value thereof. If B alleges and proves that he had a con¬ 
tract with A covering everything for which B seeks to recover, 
and that A has not complied with the terms of this contract, this 
wfill be a defense; unless indeed it can be shown that, in spite of 
A’s failure exactly to fulfil the contract, B has accepted the ma¬ 
terial. In that case the facts might raise a new implied promise. 
But if B refused the material, of course no such promise could be 
implied. On the other hand if A offered material in compliance 
with the contract, and B refused to receive it, A could hold B 
answerable for breach of the express contract although B received 
no benefit therefrom. 

Quantum Meruit. The contract which is implied in law is 
always to pay the fair value of what has been received. The Latin 
words quantum meruit , meaning as much as it is worth, are 
therefore used to describe an action based upon an implied con- 


316 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


8 


tract. To recover in quantum meruit accordingly means to re¬ 
cover the reasonable value, to be determined in the course of the 
action, of whatever has been furnished. It has already been ex¬ 
plained that where there exists a valid and enforcable contract, on 
which both parties have the right to insist, no recovery can be had 
in quantum meruit for labor and materials furnished under the 
contract. This does not mean that where a contract once existed 
concerning such work and labor, or goods or materials, or concern¬ 
ing a part of it, an action in quantum meruit will never lie. 
There are various circumstances under which this action will lie, 
in spite of such an express contract. It sometimes happens that a 
contract is so altered that it is no longer ascertainable and is there¬ 
fore treated as not existing. In such a case an action on an im¬ 
plied contract can be maintained. If a partly performed contract 
is abandoned by agreement of all the parties to it, an action in 
quantum meruit will lie for the work or materials already fur¬ 
nished only in case the contract is what is known as an entire con¬ 
tract as distinguished from a divisible or apportionable contract. 
An apportionable or divisible contract is one susceptible of di¬ 
vision or apportionment because of having two or more parts not 
necessarily dependent upon each other and not intended to be so 
dependent; as in the case of a contract for building several houses, 
where there is nothing in the contract itself or the circumstances to 
prevent singling out the part respecting any particular house, and 
treating it as distinct and complete of itself. Such a contract 
might be of such a nature that it would be obviously unfair to 
one party or the other thus to separate the parts, and to hold a 
party bound as to a portion without regard to the rest. A con¬ 
tract of this latter sort would be an entire contract, that is, a 
contract of which the terms, nature and purposes indicate an in¬ 
tention that each of its material provisions shall be dependent on 
all the rest. If, then, the contract which is abandoned be a di¬ 
visible contract of which one or more complete divisions have been 
performed, the contract may be treated as governing those divis¬ 
ions and recovery may be had only under the contract. But if the 
contract be an entire contract it would not be fair then to hold the 
parties as bound in respect to a portion only, never contemplated 
as complete in itself. Their rights must therefore be settled on 


317 




4 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


the theory of implied contract, the party indebted being answer- 
able in quantum meruit only. 

Where one party to a contract is ready and willing to per¬ 
form, but is prevented from performing or from completing his 
performance by the act or fault of the other contracting party, the 
first party may recover on the contract, or he may elect to rescind 
the contract and recover in quantum meruit for the labor and 
materials employed. If the party prevented from performing 
elects to rescind the contract and sue in quantum meruit , the 
party at fault is required to pay whatever the real worth of the 
work and materials is proved to be, not, however, according to the 
general rule, giving compensation in excess of the contract price 
for the whole. 

In an action in quantum meruit the architect’s certificate is 
probably not necessary to recovery, although where the architect 
has pointed out defects in the work or material already employed 
and the builder claims to have remedied them, it may be prac¬ 
tically necessary for the builder to show the architect’s certificate 
stating that the defects have been satisfactorily remedied. 

Express Contracts—Legality of Contract. In general, a con¬ 
tract which violates statute law, or any principle of the common 
law or of public policy, cannot be enforced. This may be of im¬ 
portance to architects in connection with restrictive building laws. 
The mere fact that a contract may be, or has been, carried out in 
such a way as to involve forbidden acts, does not render it invalid; 
the rule is aimed at such contracts as necessarily involve the doing 
of something illegal. Similarly a contract which involves a civil 
w T rong to a third person, as if A employs B to build a house in 
part wrongfully standing beyond A’s boundary upon another’s 
land, is illegal. An illegal contract cannot be enforced, according 
to the general rule, even by one who performed his part of the 
bargain, although for services rendered under such a contract there 
might be some right of recovery by implied contract. This is one 
of the subjects of which it is impossible to give here more than 
the broadest principles; the point to be borne in mind is that in 
case of any contract involving legal wrongdoing, there is occasion 
for caution and for ascertaining legal rights under the peculiar 
circumstances of the case as it arises. 


318 




LEGAL RELATIONS 


5 


As contracts which involve violation of statute or common 
law cannot be enforced, so there are principles of public policy 
which no contract will be allowed to contravene. Thus clauses 
such as are common in building contracts, providing that any 
future disputes arising in the course of dealing between the par¬ 
ties shall be determined in some specified way by arbitration are 
not always effective to prevent the parties from resorting to law. 
The policy of the law will not permit courts of justice to be thus 
ousted of their jurisdiction. 

But in spite of the lack of binding force in agreements in¬ 
tended to prevent a resort to the courts, there is a method in which 
a resort to referees or arbitrators for certain purposes may be en¬ 
forced. A clause of a contract making it a condition precedent to 
recovery in court, that the quality of materials, the value of services, 
the amount of damage, the time of paying it, or other matters not 
going to the root of the action itself, shall be settled in a certain 
way, is valid, and will prevent the maintenance of an action until 
all possible steps have been taken to comply with it. Thus the 
provision of many building contracts that certain matters such as 
those named just above shall be referred to the architect, is valid. 
The further stipulation that the architect’s decision of such matters 
shall be finally binding, is also generally held effective, in the 
absence of bad faith on the part of the architect. When a contract 
is thus drawn, the agreement of the parties rests their legal rights 
directly upon the decision of the persons named. No obligation 
under the contract therefor arises until the arbitrators decide a 
question, and they having decided it, resort may be had to the 
courts in order to enforce their decision. The courts are therefore 
not ousted of their jurisdiction. 

Parties. In order to have a good contract, the parties must be 
legally competent. As an infant is favored by the law, a person on 
coming of age may affirm or repudiate contracts made while under 
the disability of infancy, although the other party to such a con¬ 
tract is bound. It is furthermore unsafe to enter into a contract 
with a lunatic or a drunken person. A married woman was for¬ 
merly unable to contract; in some states married women may now 
make valid contracts about their own property, while in many states 
the disability is entirely removed. 


319 



6 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


It may also be mentioned here that where a private corpora- 
tion is a party to a contract, a question may arise whether the mak¬ 
ing of a contract is within the powers of the corporation. To 
determine what these powers are, reference must be had to the 
charter or articles of incorporation, and perhaps to the statute law 
of the state which created the corporation. If a corporation was 
formed for the purpose of building and operating a railroad, there 
would be no doubt of its power to build a station. If on the other 
hand a corporation formed to carry on a drug business should pro¬ 
pose to build a grain elevator, legal questions would arise. 

In dealing with public or municipal corporations also, ques¬ 
tions of the extent of powers may be raised. Questions of this 
sort are extremely varied, and may be either very simple or very 
difficult of solution. Where a corporation makes a contract beyond 
its powers, the contract may, so long as it remains unperformed on 
both sides, be rescinded by either. Yet if a person has entered 
into a contract with a corporation which is in fact beyond its 
powers, but has had no reason to suppose the contract outside such 
powers, and has in part performed the contract, his rights are gen¬ 
erally protected by the law. This does not, however, make such a 
situation anything but a very undesirable one, and care should 
therefore be used to obtain reasonable assurance that a contract is 
within the powers of a contracting corporation. Common knowl¬ 
edge of the standing and nature of the corporation may give such 
assurance; on the other hand, the matter may be so close to the 
line that nothing but an opinion of competent counsel would be 
sufficient. 

Assuming that the parties concerned are capable of contract¬ 
ing, there are two elements essential to the validity of the ordinary 
contract which will be considered here; one is mutual consent , and 
the other, consideration . 

Consent. In order to have a valid contract, the parties must 
have, and must communicate, a common intention. Their minds 
must meet in expressed agreement. If this element is absent, there 
can be no binding contract. For instance, in an English case the 
plaintiff agreed to sell and the defendants to buy a certain quality 
of Surat cotton to arrive by the ship “ Peerless ” from Bombay. 
The plaintiff offered cotton from a ship named “Peerless” from 


320 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


7 


Bombay, the defendants refused to accept it, and the plaintiff sued 
for damages for this alleged breach of contract. It was admitted 
that the defendants in using the term “ Peerless ” meant a different 
ship from that which the plaintiff had in mind, and in which the 
cotton actually arrived; jt therefore appeared that there was no 
mutual consent to the same matter. Judgment w T as accordingly 
given for the defendants. On the other hand, the law looks to the 
expressions of the parties, and when their expressions necessarily 
indicate agreement, does not permit them to say that they were 
not agreed. 

Consent is manifested by offer and acceptance. It follows 
from what has been said that both the offer and the acceptance must 
be communicated, but each may be communicated by conduct as 
well as by words. Thus if A asks X to work for him for certain 
wages, X in simply doing the work may accept the offer, unless 
some other form of acceptance was prescribed. It is also clear that 
the acceptance must be absolute, and in exact accordance with the 
terms of the offer. If A makes one offer, and X answers that he 
will do something a little different from what A suggested, there 
is no contract. X’s reply may amount to a new offer, which A 
may subsequently accept. This principle will later be seen to be 
important in connection with an architect’s submitting plans in 
response to a request for plans in competition. 

An offer may by its terms remain open for a certain length 
of time; as for two weeks or until the return mail; if no duration 
is specified it can be accepted only within a reasonable time. 
What is a reasonable time depends upon the circumstances of each 
case. In an action of law, the question would be determined by 
the jury. An offer may be revoked at any time before accept¬ 
ance. The revocation, however, must be communicated to the 
offeree. If A offers to furnish X with a cornice for a certain 
amount, A may, at any time before X has accepted the offer, effect¬ 
ively withdraw it by declaring to X his intention so to do. At the 
moment when a valid acceptance is made', the contract, if good in 
other respects, is complete, and both parties are bound. Accept¬ 
ance is therefore irrevocable without the consent of both parties. 

As to the important question wdien acceptance becomes bind¬ 
ing—it is stated as a general rule that the acceptance is made 


321 




8 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


when the acceptor has done all he can to communicate his inten¬ 
tion. Thus the mailing of a letter of acceptance properly stamped 
and addressed marks the making of a contract, and is irrevocable. 
Under this rule the delay or loss of the letter in the mail cannot 
delay or prevent the binding effect of the contract, so that it may 
happen that a person making ah offer becomes bound without his 
knowledge. For this reason it is prudent to make it part of an 
offer that acceptance shall be only by letter delivered within a 
stated time at the office or into the hand of the person making the 
offer. Upon this point of acceptance by mail there has been some 
doubt about the law, and there are old decisions in one or two juris¬ 
dictions that there is no contract until the letter of acceptance is 
received. The rule about acceptance by telegram would probably 
be the same as that governing acceptance by letter. If, on the 
other hand, an acceptance were sent by an agent of the offeree, it 
would have to be delivered to be effective. 

In this respect of the time of taking effect, revocation of an offer, 
which is ineffective until communicated, differs from acceptance. 

Consideration. Any promise, not under seal, requires what 
is called consideration to render it legally a binding contract. If 
a promise be under seal the formality of the seal is the mark of 
the contract, as is consideration in the case of contracts not under 
seal. A valuable consideration in the sense of the law is said to 
consist either in some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to 
one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss, or responsibility 
given, suffered or undertaken by the other. The consideration 
must be of value in the eye of the law; but the question of degree 
of value is of no importance; the slightest consideration, so long 
as the law recognizes it as valuable, will support the largest prom¬ 
ise. Consequently upon a mere promise by A to give X $100, 
no obligation arises; A’s promise being without consideration. 
But if A offers X $100 for some service, which X performs, the 
performance, however unimportant, is good consideration for the 
promise. Another promise is also good consideration for a prom¬ 
ise. A says to X: “I will give you $100 if you will agree 
to draw me plans for a house.” X agrees to draw the plans; 
the contract is then complete, and X’s promise is consideration 
for A’s, just as A’s is consideration for X’s. It is well to note a 


322 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


9 


difference between the two foregoing examples. If A says “I 
will pay you for making plans,” the offer can be accepted only by 
making the plans; until the offer is accepted it can be revoked, 
and A is not bound. On the other hand, if A offers to pay a cer¬ 
tain sum if X will agree to do the work, and X agrees, A is 
bound, and X is protected, from that time. The best protection 
it will be seen comes through the latter sort of contract, consist¬ 
ing in outstanding obligations on both sides. In the former case 
there is really no contract, but only an offer, until the time of 
acceptance by performance of one party. 

The Statute of Frauds, which in somewhat varying form 
exists generally throughout the States, requires certain contracts 
. to be in writing. The more important of these classes for the 
present purposes are : 

Contracts to charge a person upon a special promise to answer 
for the debt, default, or misdoing of another; that is, contracts of 
guaranty. 

Contracts for the sale of lands or any interest in or concern¬ 
ing them. 

Contracts not to be performed within one year of the time of 
making. 

Contracts for the sale of goods, wares, and merchandise of 
value above a certain amount (generally fifty dollars). In this 
case, however, a partial delivery of the goods, as a partial payment 
to bind the bargain, takes the place of writing, 

Upon such contracts, except as stated as to contracts of sale, 
no action can be maintained unless the agreement or some memo¬ 
randum or note thereof is in writing and signed by the party to 
be charged, or in his behalf by some person duly authorized thereto. 

An architect may have connection w r ith contracts of any of 
these sorts and the law should be borne in mind. The only class 
which will be especially discussed here is that of contracts not to 
be performed within one year from the time of making. In gen¬ 
eral, the statute does not include agreements which are merely 
not likely to be performed, but has regard to such as according to 
a fair interpretation, and in view of existing circumstances, do not 
admit of performance within a year from the time of making. If, 
for instance, there is no stipulation as to time, but performance 


323 




10 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


depends upon some event which may occur within a year, the 
statute does not apply. But if it is the manifest intent of the 
parties that the contract shall not be executed within a year, the 
mere fact that it is physically possible it should be sooner com¬ 
pleted, makes no difference. 

In case a contract of one of the sorts above enumerated is not 
in writing, a party may recover upon it in spite of the statute, un¬ 
less the other party takes advantage of the defense of the statute 
in his pleading in court. And where one party.to a contract which 
is void under the statute, and which the other party refuses to 
carry out, has performed his part of the agreement without objec¬ 
tion by the other party, he may recover compensation upon an 
implied contract, although the express contract is unenforceable. 
So if an architect renders services under an oral contract which is 
not to be performed within a year, and the other party refuses to 
pay for such services, the architect, while he cannot recover for 
breach of the express agreement, may recover the reasonable value 
of the services rendered, according to an implied contract. More¬ 
over, in such a case the express contract can be given in evidence 
as tending to show the value of the services. Although the value 
so shown cannot be enforced, it is sometimes held that no more 
than the contract price can be recovered. This is one of the cases 
before referred to where the doctrine of implied contracts is of im¬ 
portance as furnishing a remedy to a party to an unenforceable 
express contract. 

Conditions. Performance of a contract by one party may be 
made wholly or in part conditional upon performance by another. 
Thus a contract by which A promises to render certain services, 
and X agrees to pay for them, may be so worded that X will not 
be called upon to pay unless A has performed the services, or, on 
the other hand, it may be so arranged that A will not be obliged 
to act unless he is paid in advance. So if it is provided in a con¬ 
tract that X is to pay for A’s services only if they were completed 
by a certain day, and A does not complete his services by that 
time, A cannot, unless X had lost the right to insist upon the 
condition, recover under the contract. His only ground of recov¬ 
ery would be under an acceptance of the services by X, and a con¬ 
sequent implied contract. Not only may such conditions be ex- 


824 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


11 


pressed, but they may also be implied by the law. It is therefore 
necessary for a party to a contract to consider carefully whether he 
has done everything which he is called upon to do before he can 
maintain an action against the other party for the failure of that 
other party to perform his obligation under the contract. When by 
the contract performance by the one is expressly made conditional 
upon performance by the other, the case is clear; if no such con¬ 
ditions are expressed, the question arises wdiether any are implied. 
A court in construing a contract in this respect, as in others, will 
attempt to ascertain the intention of the parties, and if it appears 
to have been intended that the whole or a part of performance by 
one party was meant to be dependent upon some portion of the 
performance by the other party, then effect will be given to this 
intention by holding performance under the contract conditional 
according to the intention shown. Take for instance a contract 
for the sale of land: one party may agree to convey the land at a 
certain time, and the other to pay the purchase money at the same 
time, without expressly saying that either act should be dependent 
upon the performance of the other. Yet, as the meaning is clear 
that the acts are in reality to be mutually dependent, neither party 
is called upon to perform unless the other party is ready, able, and 
willing to carry out his part; and, on the other hand, neither party 
can maintain an action for breach without showing himself to 
have been able, ready and willing to perform on his side. The 
practical result of these principles is that when B breaks his con¬ 
tract with A, and A wishes to hold B liable for the breach, A 
must carefully consider whether he has done all on his part that 
is necessary to put B in the wrong. As questions of some nicety 
occur on such points, it is desirable to take advice of counsel in 
season to follow out any suggestions regarding such steps as a pre¬ 
liminary to a suit. 

Construction of Contracts. Disputes often arise over the 
meaning of contracts after they are made and perhaps reduced to 
writing. This may come from careless drawing; it may be due 
to the necessity of applying the contract to new and unforeseen 
circumstances, or it may arise from a desire of one of the parties 
to a controversy to strain every point in his own favor. When 


325 




12 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


such disputes arise it is an important matter for the parties to 
know how the proper construction is determined. 

If the question of the construction of a contract is involved 
in a litigated case, the matter is determined by the judge, not by 
the jury. There are many rules of construction by which the 
judge is guided, only some of the more general and the more im¬ 
portant of which will be mentioned here. While no oral evidence 
to explain or supplement a written contract will be heard, yet the 
judge may consider other distinct agreements of the parties which 
modify the contract in question. He will also hear evidence as to 
the circumstances of the parties when the contract was made, as 
tending to show the meaning of expressions used. Oral evidence 
may also be given to show the technical, and sometimes the cus¬ 
tomary, meaning of words contained in the contract. When, how¬ 
ever, a custom is relied upon to give to a word a meaning different 
from that generally accepted, or to add to the substance of a con¬ 
tract, it must be a custom that is reasonable, certain, defined, and 
uniform. In most cases the custom must be shown to be known 
to both parties to the contract. It is important in framing con¬ 
tracts to use words in general use, and to use them in a commonly 
accepted sense, seeking clearness and precision, and carefully avoid- 
ing possible ambiguities. In construing a contract, the object of 
the court is to ascertain the real intent of the parties at the time 
of signing. The judge seeks to decide what meaning the words 
had as used by the parties, under the given circumstances, at the 
given time and place. In construing any portion, he takes the 
whole instrument into account, and looks for such an interpreta¬ 
tion as will give effect to every part. 

Assignability of Contracts. Contracts which involve per¬ 
sonal services, where the element of individuality is important, 
cannot be assigned, and the estate of the person whose services are 
contracted for cannot be held to the contract. If, therefore, an 
architect dies, his contract for services is terminated. In general, 
however, a contract is assignable, and both the benefit and the 
burden of it pass to a man’s estate. In case of bankruptcy of a 
contracting party, therefore, an ordinary contract passes to the 
assignee or trustee. It should be considered in drawing a contract 


326 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


IS 


whether a provision is not wanted making bankruptcy, or death, of 
of one or either of the parties, terminate the contract. 

Avoidance of Contract. A contract made between competent 
parties, and apparently having all the legal requisites of a good 
contract, may still under certain circumstances be set aside by the 
court. If in the formation of a contract there has been mistake, 
misrepresentation, fraud, duress, or undue influence, the injured 
party may, by proper legal proceedings, avoid the agreement. Such 
mistake as may be the basis of relief must not be mere careless 
mistake; it is in many cases of such a nature as almost to involve 
misrepresentation or fraud. Duress occurs where the consent of 
one party is obtained by violence. Undue influence implies that 
the will of one person is absolutely overcome by the will of another, 
so that the consent of the first is not really an independent act. 
Perhaps the most important of the above-named grounds of avoid¬ 
ance is fraud. In case a contract has been entered into upon a 
material and wilfully false representation by the other party, it 
may be avoided. Occasion for this may arise, for instance, upon 
deception in the purchase of materials. 

Reforming Contracts. Where a contract has been reduced 
to writing, but through a mistake, does not express the agreement 
of the parties, it may be reformed by a court so as to correspond 
with the real understanding. This is the more important because 
of the important principle that a party to a written contract is not 
permitted in an action founded upon that contract to show by 
evidence outside the writing itself, that the agreement was not 
what the written statement shows it to be. He may avoid the 
contract on one of the grounds stated in the preceding section, or 
he may show that another later contract, whether oral or written, 
affects it, but he may not attempt to show by oral testimony that 
it was something different from the written expression. If the 
contract was in fact different from what is shown by the writing, 
and if the other party will not consent to the required change, 
application should be made to the proper tribunal for reformation. 

Penalties and Liquidated Damages. If a contract provides 
that upon default by one party, that party shall pay to the other a 
certain sum, and it appears that the payment is intended as a pen¬ 
alty and was inserted only for the purpose of securing performance, 


327 



14 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


it will not be enforced by the courts. If, on the other hand, it ap¬ 
pears that the sum is named as a measure of the compensation for 
a breach, it is called liquidated damages, and is valid, fixing the 
amount to be recovered if, by reason of a breach of contract, the 
provision comes into effect. Provisions of this nature are often 
introduced into building contracts. 

The courts seek to ascertain the real intent of the parties in 
making the provision. But the fact that the sum is specifically 
called liquidated damages is not conclusive.. If the sum named is 
clearly disproportionate to the damage which would be suffered, it 
tends to indicate that a penalty was intended. Again, where the 
contract involves doing many acts of various sorts, and only one 
fixed sum is named to be paid upon a breach, a similar inference 
would be drawn. 

Conversely if the sum varies with the extent of the breach, 
as where a certain amount is to be paid for each day of delay, it 
is an indication of an intention to fix liquidated damages. If the 
damages in case of breach would be readily ascertainable, it is 
more likely that a named sum will be held to be a penalty than in 
cases where it be very difficult to determine the actual damage. 
The attempt to impose penalties being one to which the courts will 
not give effect, and the validity of such clauses depending largely 
upon their reasonableness, it is obvious that no general rule for 
drawing liquidated damage clauses can be given. The matter not 
being a simple one, it will be found that contractors often have 
very erroneous ideas on the subject, having learned of some one test 
sometimes applied by the courts, and believing such test to be 
conclusive. The necessity of care in drawing these clauses is in¬ 
creased by the fact that where there is doubt, the courts incline to 
treat the amount fixed in the contract as a penalty, rather than as 
liquidated damages. It is important to make the amount stipu¬ 
lated clearly reasonable as a measure of damages for the breach 
mentioned. 

Breach of Contract Operating as Discharge. If one party 

to a contract is guilty of a serious breach thereof, the other party 
may thereupon have the right to treat the contract as terminated. 
The test is whether the breach goes, as is said, to the essence of 
the contract. No rule can be laid down as a guide to show what 


328 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


15 


breach does go to the essence. The contract must be construed and 
the intention of the parties ascertained. It is well to remember, 
however, this possibility, that very grave deviation by a builder, 
for instance, from the requirements of a contract, might, at the 
choice of the owner, discharge the contract. Furthermore, it is to 
be noted that if in any contract some matter is of especial im¬ 
portance, which in other similar contracts might be of little ac¬ 
count, as, for instance, the time of performance, its importance 
should be made clear. In such case it is desirable to state ex¬ 
pressly that the matter in question is of the essence of the con¬ 
tract, although this language in itself would not be held conclu¬ 
sive. If the importance of a certain matter is made clear, then, 
in case of breach in respect of that matter, the injured person will 
stand in a better position, and be safe in holding himself dis¬ 
charged from further obligation to proceed under the contract. In 
case of the termination of a contract, however, the student must 
remember that if the party terminating it retains the benefit of 
work already performed by the other party, he will be liable to 
pay for such work upon an implied contract. 

Discharge by Consent. It hardly needs to be said that a 
contract may at any time be discharged by all the parties thereto. 
It is desirable to have the discharge, like the contract, clearly 
made in writing, so as to cover all questions of further rights and 
liabilities. 

Waiver. If a party to a contract clearly waives his right 
under a certain clause, and the other party, relying on such a 
waiver, does not fulfil that clause, the resulting variation from the 
contract terms is excused. Thus if a building contract makes an 
architect’s certificate a condition precedent to payment, and if 
the owner gives the contractor to understand that the certificate 
will not be required, this waiver renders the production of ihe cer¬ 
tificate unnecessary as a condition of payment. "Waiver may be 
foupd the conduct, as well as in the words, of a party. The 
^’lestion whether words or conduct amount to a waiver, is one for 
the jury to decide. 

Modification. Contracts may always be modified by agree¬ 
ment of the parties. The subsequent agreement must be a good 
contract according to the ordinary rules, in order to effect a change 


329 




16 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


in an existing contract. A waiver may also practically modify a 
contract. It is important, however, for the sake of avoiding com¬ 
plications and disputes to have a contract always kept clear and 
readily provable. Hence it is only a reasonable precaution to have 
any modifications of a written contract put in writing. One advan¬ 
tage of this is that the written expression of the understanding is 
likely to be made more definite, thus avoiding disputes on the ground 
of inexactness, as well as on the ground of misunderstanding. 

Suretyship. The relation of suretyship arises where besides 
an obligee, as, for instance a creditor, and the principal obligor, as 
a debtor, there is another person who becomes answerable for the 
debt or default of the principal obligor, and who is called a surety. 

The contract of a surety is so peculiar as to form the subject 
of a separate branch of law. It will be remembered that this 
contract is one of those which, under the Statute of Frauds, must 
be in writing, in order to be enforceable. The principle of the law 
of Suretyship chiefly to be noticed is that if the creditor acts in 
such a manner as might affect the position of the surety and in¬ 
crease his liability, the surety is discharged. Therefore, if in a 
contract between A and B, C becomes surety for performance of 
B’s part, A must proceed with great caution in all matters affect¬ 
ing his relations with B. In some states if the surety requests 
the creditor to bring suit against the debtor, and the creditor re¬ 
fuses to do so, the surety will be discharged. Written requests to 
sue are provided for by law in some states. Lack of diligence in 
prosecuting a suit may forfeit the creditor’s right against the 
surety. The release of one surety discharges co-sureties from 
so much of the original debt as the person discharged could have 
been compelled to pay. So if file property of the debtor is held 
for security, and is surrendered, the creditor loses his claim against 
the surety to the extent of the value of the property. The point 
chiefly to be regarded as most likely to affect building contracts is 
that any material alteration in the contract between the creditor 
and the principal which would extend the liability of the surety 
beyond the terms of his original agreement, and to which the 
surety does not assent, discharges the surety. 


330 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


17 


THE LAW OF AGENCY. 

An architect may be empowered, and act, as agent of the 
owner. Aside from this possibility, the law of agency is so much 
involved in business transactions, that it is highly desirable to 
understand in some degree the principles of that branch of the law. 
The general principle of agency is that a person acting through 
another is as much bound as if he acted directly, without such an 
instrument. 

Agent or Independent Contractor. Not every person em¬ 
ployed by another to accomplish an object, is an agent. The rela¬ 
tion of agency implies control of the agent by the principal. A 
person may be employed to do certain things in such a way as to 
leave him independent, so far as any such authority of his employer 
is concerned, and bound to his employer only by such definite 
agreements as exist between them. Thus it has been held that a 
person employed under a certain contract to build a house for an¬ 
other, was not an agent, but was an independent contractor; and 
it is probable that the contractor under the ordinary building con¬ 
tract would be so held. An important result of this would be that 
the owner would not be liable for acts and neglect of the con¬ 
tractor in the way in which it will appear a principal is liable for 
acts and neglect of his agent. 

Powers of Agent. So long as an agent acts within the scope 
of his authority, he binds his principal thereby. The authority of 
an agent may T)e expressly granted or impliedly granted. If per¬ 
sons dealing with an agent know him to be acting under a written 
power of attorney, they are bound to inquire and take notice of the 
nature and scope of the power, and fail to do so at their own risk. 
If the expression of the authority * has excluded a certain power, 
persons dealing with the agent are held to know that such is the 
fact, and cannot, therefore, hold the principal bound by the action 
of his agent in excess of the power granted. But an agent may, 
and usually does, have powers outside of such as are expressed. 
These are called implied powers. The extent of such implied 
powers is oftentimes a difficult question of law. Such powers are 
to be implied only from facts from which is inferred the intention 
of the principal to grant them. It is said that every delegation of 



18 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


power carries witli it, as implied powers, authority to do all things 
reasonably necessary and proper to carry into effect the main power 
conferred, and not forbidden by the principal. Moreover a widely 
known and long existing usage which is reasonable and not con¬ 
trary to law, may have the effect of conferring power upon an 
agent in addition to that expressly granted. It is also to be noted 
that although an act of an agent exceeds his authority, the princi¬ 
pal may subsequently ratify the act so as to make it binding upon 
himself as if authorized in the first instance. 

Liability of Principal. Hot only is a principal liable upon 
such contractual obligations as may be entered into by his agent 
acting in his behalf within the scope of the granted authority, but 
the principal is also liable for such torts, or civil wrongs, such as 
trespass, assault, or battery, which his agent may commit in the 
course of his business. This often proves a serious matter to em¬ 
ployers, although the development of liability insurance has fur¬ 
nished a means of equalizing the risks. This show’s further the 
importance of the question whether a person is an agent or an 
independent contractor. If he be the former, then the principal 
as well as the agent himself, is liable for torts. If the latter, 
there is no w r ay of going back of the individual wrongdoing. 

Duties of Agent to Principal. The first duty of an agent is 
the strict and far reaching one of loyalty to his trust. In enforc¬ 
ing this the law looks not at the intent or effect in any given 
transaction, but at the tendency of such transactions in general, 
and at the policy of permitting a given course of dealing. Thus 
it is a general rule that an agent may not deal in the business of 
the agency for his own benefit, but that all the profits made in the 
business of the' agency belong to the principal. A decision in 
accordance with this rule held that where one person employed 
another for hire to pursue and capture a horse thief, the principal 
was entitled to a reward offered for the capture effected by the 
agent. While an architect in the ordinary course of his profes¬ 
sional duties does not act exclusively as agent of the building 
owner, yet in matters where he is not acting as arbiter between 
the owner and the contractor he is in general held to a duty of 
loyalty to his employer which is substantially that of an agent. 
Thus it sometimes occurs that dealers offer rebates to architects 


332 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


19 


specifying their wares; such rebates undoubtedly belong to the 
owners, the owner being entitled to singleness of purpose in bis 
interest on the part of the architect, and the latter being under 
obligation to obtain supplies at the lowest possible price and give 
bis employer the full benefit thereof. The operation of the rule of 
agency is not defeated by a custom to the contrary, nor is an agent 
allowed to accomplish by indirect means what would not be per¬ 
mitted if done openly and directly. 

Another duty of the agent is to obey instructions, and the 
agent is liable for losses incurred by his disobedience. While the 
necessity of a sudden emergency may be a justification for the 
agent, in the use of sound discretion, in departing from his instruc¬ 
tions without consulting his principal, on ordinary occasions an 
agent makes material and unauthorized departures from his origi¬ 
nal instructions at his peril. It is further the duty of every agent 
“to bring to the performance of his undertaking, and to exercise 
in such performance, that degree of skill, care and diligence which 
the nature of the undertaking and the time, place and circum¬ 
stances of the performance justly and reasonably demand. A 
failure to do this, whereby the principal suffers loss or injury, con¬ 
stitutes negligence for which the agent is responsible.”* The law 
holds an agent to the exercise of such care and skill as persons of 
common capacity engaged in the same business may be supposed 
to possess. In the case of an architect the law would presume, in 
the absence of anything to the contrary, that in giving his services, 
he warranted himself to possess in a reasonable degree, the knowl¬ 
edge and skill required for the work undertaken. 

Delegation of Powers by Agent. The principal is entitled , 
to the personal knowledge and skill of his chosen agent, and the 
agent may not unless specially authorized, delegate to others the 
powers conferred upon him by his principal. But in the case of 
duties of the agent which are merely mechanical or ministerial, 
involving no elements of judgment, discretion or personal skill, 
power to delegate is implied. So the nature of the duty may be 
such as to require reliance upon others in performing it; and the 
authority of an agent will be so construed as to include the neces- 

♦Mechem on Agency, o 329. 


333 




20 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


sary and usual means of execution, so long as such means are not 
prohibited by express instructions. 

Undisclosed Principal. ‘When an agent, in dealing with a 
third party, does not disclose the name of his principal, the third 
party is at liberty, on finding out who the principal is, to choose 
between holding him responsible, or holding the agent himself 
personally bound by the transaction. Consequently an agent, for 
his own protection, should not only state that he represents an¬ 
other person, and is not binding himself, but should make it clear 
just who his principal is. Thus if an architect be employed to 
purchase material or to contract for labor, he ought to state that 
he acts only in behalf of the owner, whose name he should give. 
The proper form of signature where an agent acts for his princi¬ 
pal is “ A (name of principal), by his attorney, B(name of agent).” 

Questions of Agency in Connection with Corporations, So= 
cieties and Public Officers. In dealing with a body of persons, 
incorporated or unincorporated, it is important for an architect to 
know whether his employment is authorized, so that he may look 
to some satisfactory source for his compensation. It has already 
been stated that in dealing with corporations it is prudent to ascer¬ 
tain whether the proposed action is within the powers of the cor¬ 
poration. It is further to be noted that a corporation can act only 
through agents, and that questions will therefore arise as to the 
powers of the agent, who will usually be an officer of the corpora¬ 
tion. Thus in entering into a contract with a corporation, one 
should have evidence of the powers of the representative of the 
corporation with whom he deals. The power would generally 
appear in the by-laws or in some vote of the stockholders or di¬ 
rectors. Many powers connected with routine business are con¬ 
ferred upon officers merely by virtue of their office, the by-laws 
investing them with “ the duties usually incident to” the office in 
question. In important matters depending upon votes, it is to be 
considered whether the proceedings are formally correct, a matter 
upon which expert advice may be necessary. Oftentimes business 
houses or social or religious societies have names which might in¬ 
dicate them to be corporations, while in fact they are not incor¬ 
porated. The law does not recognize as an entity or unit any firm 
or unincorporated association, but regards such bodies as merely 


334 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


21 


collections of individuals, although statutes in some states permit 
suit to be brought against even an unincorporated society as a 
body. Aside from these statutes, in suing a club or unincor¬ 
porated society the persons composing it must be named individ¬ 
ually, and the legal remedy is against such members as are liable; 
whereas in the case of a corporation, it is sued as a legal person. 
In the latter case the liability of stockholders is limited; but a 
member of an unincorporated club or society who is bound by a 
contract made for the society may be liable to the full extent of 
the contract. No general rule can be laid down, however, that all 
members are liable for acts of a society. The question arises 
whether each member has given authority to bind him by the 
given action, a question often of great difficulty. Thus an archi¬ 
tect who supposes himself to be acting for a club or religious so¬ 
ciety, may find himself in case of dispute with a claim against 
only the members of a small committee which authorized the work. 

In dealing with public officials, the limits of their authority 
are to be ascertained from the general laws, or from the charter of 
the particular municipality. A public body, in order to have its 
acts valid, must be acting as a body at a meeting properly held 
and organized. The agreement of all the members of such a body 
outside of a meeting does not constitute official action. 

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 

Law and Equity. Our courts give relief of two classes, ac¬ 
cording as they sit as courts of law or courts of equity. Equitable 
powers were formerly exercised by separate courts; but now the 
higher courts generally have both legal and equitable jurisdiction. 
A court of law as such is limited in its method of relief. Except 
in some cases in which the return of a specific chattel will be 
directed, and in actions concerning the title to real estate, a court 
of law can only compel the payment of damages. A court exercis¬ 
ing equitable powers, on the other hand, may order a defendant to 
act, or not to act, in a certain way; the penalty for failure to com¬ 
ply with such an order is punishment for contempt. Injunctions 
present a familiar instance of an equitable remedy, enforceable by 
contempt proceedings. 


335 




22 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


One of the important classes of equitable actions is found in 
bills for the specific performance of a contract. Instead of sub¬ 
mitting to a breach of contract, and recovering money damages 
therefor, the aggrieved party may in many, but not in all cases, 
by means of a bill in equity, compel the other party to perform 
the contract. Thus in the case of contracts for the sale of land, 
equity will take jurisdiction; in that of contracts for the sale of 
personal property, equitable relief is not ordinarily given. Equity 
will not in general grant specific performance of a contract involv¬ 
ing the exercise of discretion and skill and the rendering of personal 
services, and would undoubtedly refuse to compel an architect to 
carry out an agreement to perform the services commonly rendered 
in the designing and building of a house. The reason isiound in 
the impossibility of judicial supervision of the work. The remedy 
for such a refusal by an architect would be by an action for dam¬ 
ages. A building agreement would not ordinarily be enforced in 
equity, although certain agreements involving simple construction 
have been enforced. A negative promise, as if an architect promises 
not to work for any person in a certain locality, other than A, or 
not to erect a building similar to X’s, may be enforced by 
injunction. 

The reforming of contracts, hitherto referred to, is also a 
matter within the powers of a court of equity only. 

Resort to Legal Proceedings. In regard to resort to the 
courts it is to be borne in mind that it is necessary not only to 
have a just case, but also to prove it. This proof may be before 
a jury if either side so chooses, and a little reflection will show 
the element of uncertainty which is thus introduced into any 
litigated dispute. Moreover the matter of proving one’s case is 
much affected by the rules of evidence, rules sometimes arbitrary 
in their nature, and largely the result of practical considerations 
involved in the use of the jury system. From these it may result 
that matters which have some weight in ordinary discussion, are 
not allowed to reach the ears of a jury. Thus hearsay, or what 
one person knows only by the word of another, is generally ex¬ 
cluded, although it might have a certain limited value as proof. 
Another practical consideration in a question of bringing suit 
arises in the difference in the laws of different states. It may 


336 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


23 


happen that a person’s chances of success in a suit depend upon 
the place where his action may be brought. The delay necessarily 
incident to legal proceedings, a delay especially trying in the large 
cities, is also to be considered. From these few considerations 
alone it appears that the question of advisability of bringing suit, 
or of peaceful compromise, may be a complicated one. On the 
other hand, by no means every suit that is begun is settled by trial 
in court. A lawsuit may be an excellent means of bringing an 
obstinate or grasping person to reason. 

Liens. A lien is a claim or hold upon the property of an¬ 
other as security for a debt or claim. Statutes in many states 
give so-called mechanics’ liens upon land and buildings to various 
persons who have done work in constructing or repairing the lat¬ 
ter, although it be only a contractor, and not the landowner, who 
is liable upon the contract. In a few states these statutes have 
been held to extend to architects; while in some other states it has 
been held that architects are not entitled to liens for services under 
these statutes. 

These laws are of importance to owners inasmuch as they 
render their property liable for the debts of the contractors, since 
an unpaid workman, hired by the contractor, can secure his wages 
through his lien on the building. It is therefore common in 
building contracts to guard against loss on this score by a provis¬ 
ion that the last payment shall be made only after the lapse of a 
certain time after the completion of the work. The period named 
corresponds with the limit of time for claiming liens. Workmen 
and sub-contractors are usually very familiar with the law in the 
details in which it immediately affects their rights, and commonly 
conduct themselves in their work, in cases in which trouble is an¬ 
ticipated, with a view to helping their legal remedies. Thus it 
will be found that sub-contractors very frequently prolong their 
work on one pretext and another, in the hope of extending the time 
within which liens may be secured. The legal means necessary to 
establish these liens cannot be stated here. The services of a 
lawyer are necessary, as in instituting any other legal proceeding. 

Bankruptcy and Insolvency. The statute law provides a 
method by which a person can, by giving up all his property and 
otherwise fulfilling the terms of the law, escape further liability 


337 



24 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


upon ordinary debts. State laws upon tills subject are called In¬ 
solvency Acts, and are all superseded by an Act of Congress on 
the subject, the latter being known as a Bankruptcy Act. At 
present a Bankruptcy Act is in effect. An adjudication of bank¬ 
ruptcy or insolvency may take place upon the petition of a debtor 
or of his creditors, and thereafter all the property of the debtor is 
vested by order of court or otherwise in some person appointed by 
the court usually called an assignee or trustee. By this transfer 
of property any assignable contract would -pass to such trustee or 
assignee. If the contract is not assignable, it would not pass, but 
in that case the original contractor, stripped of property and of 
credit, is not a desirable person with whom to continue relations. 
For these reasons it is w T ell, as has already been said, to introduce 
a clause into building contracts that the insolvency or bankruptcy 
of the builder or owner shall release the other party from further 
performance. 

One who is a creditor of an insolvent has to prove his claim 
before the court in a formal manner. If one has a large claim 
against such a person, it is sometimes best to secure counsel, as 
fraudulent practices, intended to deprive creditors of their dues, 
are not uncommon. 

Knowledge of the Statute Law. A practicing architect 
should familiarize himself with such laws of the state, and such 
ordinances of the town or city in which he is employed as espec¬ 
ially apply to his work. These laws and ordinances may concern 
him in many ways. It may be that such laws will require a license 
for the practice of an architect’s profession; and they probably will 
impose building restrictions with which it is important for him to 
be familiar. He should know what, if any, privilege of inspection 
is vested in any persons by force of the law, and he should under¬ 
stand the requirements about building permits and other similar 
matters. It is sometimes provided that public contracts shall be 
awarded only after competition, and certain notice given, so that if 
the requirements are not complied with, such a contract will not 
be valid. In many places the building laws will be found to be 
collected and printed together; inquiry at a city hall for such a 
compilation is advisable. In other places it may be necessary to 
seek out the laws on these matters from general compilations. It 


338 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


25 


is a familiar maxim that ignorance of the law is no excuse for 
breach of it. Moreover it will be seen later that a person employ¬ 
ing an architect has a right to rely on the architect’s knowledge of 
building regulations; so that the latter will be liable to his em¬ 
ployer if through his ignorance the laws are infringed and the 
employer suffers. Service in the office of an architect of estab¬ 
lished practice has the advantage that many points of information 
of this sort, which it may be difficult to obtain elsewhere, become 
familiar to the student. 

Torts. Torts are a large class of wrongs arising not in a 
breach of a contractual duty owed by one person to another, but 
in the breach of a duty which the law imposes upon one member 
of society for the benefit of others. Thus a man owes a duty to 
use due care to avoid injury to any one of his fellows with whom 
he is brought into contact. The commoner torts are familiar to 
everyone—trespass, assault, battery, and actions for negligence. 
A few not so commonly understood may be mentioned here. 

If A makes to B a statement knowing it to be false, and in¬ 
tending to lead B to act upctt it. and B does act upon it to his 
damage, A is liable. This is called deceit. It is not uncommon 
that such statements are made to induce a person to enter into 
some relation or contract. The fraud may then, as has been seen, 
afford ground for treating the contract as void; it may also give 
rise to an action for deceit. 

The law imposes various duties upon landowners to keep their 
premises in safe condition for persons using it in the regular 
course of business. The duty need not be considered here further 
than to say that if an architect so designs a building as to render 
it dangerous to persons in the uses contemplated for it, he may 
cause the owner to be liable for ensuing damage. For this loss to 
the owner it will be seen later the architect might be legally re¬ 
sponsible. 

There is one liability of an extraordinary sort which may 
occasionally affect a landlord. Ordinarily if a man’s use of his 
land causes damage to another the landowner is liable only if his 
negligence contributed to the damage. But if a man builds a 
peculiarly dangerous structure on his land, then he may be liable 
for any damage it causes, although he is guilty of no negligence, 


339 




26 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


and although the damage would not have occurred but for some 
natural catastrophe, as a flood or tornado. So a man building a 
reservoir on his land has been held liable for damage caused by its 
bursting in time of flood; and the doctrine might be extended to 
cover a variety of unusual or essentially dangerous structures, thus 
necessitating extraordinary care in construction. 

It has already been said that for torts of an agent committed 
in the course of his employment, the principal, as well as the agent 
himself, is liable. 

IN GENERAL. 

The first part of an architect’s duty in any given employment 
is ordinarily the drawing of plans. In this work he acts substan¬ 
tially as another person of skill might act in another capacity—a 
lawyer in drawing a will, or a physician in treating a case. It is 
sometimes said he is at this stage the agent of the owner; but in 
the typical case no questions of agency are practically involved, 
and it is doubtful if the architect may not be considered at this 
stage as in the position of an independent contractor. 

The plans being completed and accepted, the architect often 
acts for his employer in getting bids. At this time he may be 
invested ^ith powers as agent of the owner. But this can be only 
by express agreement, and the architect should be extremely care¬ 
ful not to make any representations or arrangements in which he 
may seem to act for the owner unless there is unquestionable 
authority to bind the latter. Otherwise, as has been seen, the 
architect may make himself personally liable. Where the architect 
has no power as agent, but is concerned in assisting his employer, 
without having power to bind him, it may be well for tk9 architect 
to state expressly that he has no authority to bind the owner, and 
that his inquiries or suggestions are made only for the purpose of 
submitting the results. At this stage, then, an architect may by 
special arrangement be agent of the owner, or there may be no 
agency involved, or an agency so narrow, in the mere advertising for 
bids, or receiving offers, as to present no questions of importance. 

When the contract between the owner and the builder, called 
the “building contract”, has been made, the architect has certain 
powers and duties under that contract. Of course the owner may 


340 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


27 


invest the architect at this stage also with various powers as his 
agent. Such powers, depending upon the agreement in each case, 
cannot be profitably discussed here. The general observations on 
the subject of agency will apply. But as to the powers and duties 
of the architect under the building contract, there is now such con¬ 
formity in building contracts, and the position of the architect is so 
substantially similar in the majority of cases, that the matter may 
well be considered. With “The Uniform Contract,”* which is now 
very commonly used, it will be well for the student to become 
familiar. 

THE ARCHITECT’S POSITION UNDER THE BUILDING 
CONTRACT. 

Whatever powers the architect has, under the building con¬ 
tract, which is a contract between the owner and the contractor, 
are not powers which he himself can enforce. The parties to that 
contract have not, by virtue thereof, bound themselves to him. 
They have made mutual promises, and have given to the acts of 
the architect, as between themselves, a certain force. By virtue 
of this agreement either party to it may hold the other to this 
provision giving effect to the architect’s action. But the architect 
himself cannot insist upon having that effect given to his acts. 
In a sense, it may be said that he has rights, but, legally speaking, 
he has no rights under the contract. Whatever contractual rights 
he has as against the owner or contractor must be by virtue of 
some contract to which he is a party. And whatever similar 
rights the other parties have against him must be by virtue of 
some contract to which he is a party. To illustrate—the building 
contract usually provides for inspection by the architect. Should 
the contractor refuse to permit this inspection, the refusal would 
be a breach of his contractual duty to the owner; but the archi¬ 
tect himself would have no legal cause of complaint against the 
contractor, for the contractor’s promise in regard to inspection was 
made, not to the architect, but to the owner; the only legal cause 
for complaint would therefore be in the owner. Bearing this in 
mind, what, merely as between the owner and contractor, are the 
duties and powers with which the architect is invested by the 
building contract ? 

*See Appendix I. 


341 




28 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


As Regards Certificates. It is commonly provided in the 
building contract that payments for work shall be conditional upon 
the giving of certificates by the architect. Such a provision in an 
ordinary contract applies to extras as well as to the specified work, 
since extras are contemplated and provided for in the contract. 
Inasmuch as the giving of the certificate demands an exercise of 
judgment on the part of the person giving it, such certificate should 
be given only by the party named to give it—by the architect 
himself—and on his own knowledge of the facts; unless, indeed, 
there is an express provision in the contract authorizing him to 
delegate this duty to another. Where there is such a provision 
for delegation a certificate by the party to whom the duty has been 
delegated is, of course, valid. 

Similarly the certificate of the architect must be strictly in 
the form provided for in the contract. If the contract does not 
provide that the certificate shall be in writing there is no rule of 
law precluding a certificate by word of mouth. Were there space 
within the limits of this article, many decisions might be cited 
holding certificates sufficient or insufficient under the contracts 
applying to the respective cases. The following will suffice to show 
what sort of question arises: 

In an Illinois case (Barney v. Giles, 120 Ill. 154), the build¬ 
ing contract provided that payment in full should be made “on the 
presentation of the architect’s certificate certifying that the con¬ 
tract has been and truly performed,.and accepted by him, and that 
all damages or allowances which should be paid or made by the 
parties of the second part, have been deducted from the amount of 
the said final certificate”. A certificate was given, the substantial 
part of which was as follows: 

“ This is to certify that Barney & Rodatz, contractors for the 
mason work of your additional stores, are entitled to a payment of 
11,079.73, by the terms of contract. 

“Remarks—Work has been measured at building”. 

It was held that this certificate was insufficient because it did 
not state that there were no claims for damages; and that the mere 
fact that no claims had been presented did not remedy the defect. 

Where the architect certifies to the work at its different stages 
i.e., gives interim certificates, he should be very careful not to 


342 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


29 


overestimate the work done, because if he does overestimate, and 
the contractor abandons his contract, the owner will be left in the 
position of having paid more for the finished portion of the work 
than it was worth, and the architect may find himself personally 
liable for the amount in excess of what he should have certified to. 

The architect’s final certificate is the document in accordance 
with which the accounts are closed, and should be made up very 
carefully. It should be given only after all the work is done, the 
extras noted, and, if allowed, a reasonable price fixed therefor. 
The architect should at this time be informed of all variations or 
all omissions in the performance of the contract, and the rights of 
the owner in respect to such are to be carefully protected. If the 
variations are of a serious nature, the owner may not be obliged 
to accept or pay for the work. On the other hand, the owner may 
take the work as it stands, but demand and, if necessary, recover 
at law, damages for the deviations from the contract. Where the 
contract is not exactly carried out, the architect should ordinarily 
refuse a final certificate. In some cases it may be proper for him 
to give a certificate stating all omissions or variations from the 
contract, and reserving to the owner all rights on account thereof. 
This latter course might be called for by the terms of a particular 
contract, or it might be rendered proper by agreement of the par¬ 
ties. Where a conditional certificate of this sort is given, it may 
not be such a certificate as is required by the contract as a condi¬ 
tion precedent to payment; for, as shown above, where a certifi¬ 
cate of certain form is called for, a certificate in materially different 
form is not sufficient. 

When an architect’s certificate is made a condition precedent 
to payment, what is the position of the contractor if it is refused ? 
If it is refused for good cause, of course, the contractor cannot 
recover the payment in question. If, on the other hand, the con¬ 
tractor has faithfully performed his part of the contract, and can 
show that a certificate was refused through the fraud of the owner, 
then the failure to produce a certificate will be excused, and the 
contractor may recover in spite of it. Between those cases where 
the refusal is justified and those where it is fraudulent are the cases 
where the refusal is neither justified nor fraudulent, but unreason¬ 
able. It is often stated that where the refusal is unreasonable as 


¥543 



BO 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


well as where it is collusive or fraudulent, the contractor may re- 
cover without the certificate, after proving, of course, the unreason¬ 
able character of the refusal. Such is the law in some states. On 
the other hand, it is argued that the agreement of the parties gives 
effect to the granting or refusal of a certificate by the architect chosen, 
and that it changes the agreement to undo the effect of his decision 
merely because to a judge or to a jury that decision appears un¬ 
reasonable. It has accordingly been held in some jurisdictions 
that nothing short of fraud will excuse the-non-production of the 
certificate. The authorities are not uniform on the question 
whether fraud by the architect alone excuses non-production of 
the certificate or whether fraud is an excuse only if the owner 
participates in it. 

The contract may provide that the work shall be done to the 
satisfaction of the architect, and that his certificates shall be given 
only when he is satisfied with the work. The effect given to such 
a contract is different in different jurisdictions. The point of dif¬ 
ference is on the question whether the contractor is bound to satisfy 
the peculiar tests and opinions of the architect specified, or whether 
such w T ork as would satisfy a reasonable man in the architect’s 
position would be sufficient, so that any refusal of a certificate un¬ 
der these circumstances would be regarded as merely whimsical 
and unreasonable, and so in some jurisdictions not to prevent the 
contractor’s recovery. 

The contractor may also recover payment without producing 
the certificate which was made a condition precedent, if the owner 
has waived his right to insist upon the condition. A California 
case held that where a building had been completed and occupied 
apparently without objection from the architect or owner, although 
no certificates had been given, the occupancy was evidence that the 
owners w T aived the requirement of a certificate and payment was 
due on the contract. In a Wisconsin case it was held that pay¬ 
ment of 50 per cent of the price without demanding the certificate 
was a waiver of the certificate as to that part and also as to the 
other part, unless notice had been given that the certificate w T ould 
be required for the remainder of the work. Of course each of 
these cases was determined on the special circumstances under 
which it arose. It is certain that occupancy alone does not neces- 


344 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


31 


sarily constitute a waiver of the condition as to the certificate. 
The question of waiver of this condition is subject to the ordinary 
considerations of the law upon that subject. 

It is generally held that if by the death of the architect it be- 
comes impossible to procure the certificate the non-production will 
not prevent recovery by the contractor. 

The next question that arises is as to the effect of the certifi¬ 
cate when once given. It is not finally binding on the parties in 
such a manner that its findings cannot be contradicted, unless the 
provisions of the contract render the certificate of binding effect. 
As the certificate depends on the contract for its effect it can have 
force only to the extent therein provided for, and a certificate pre¬ 
tending to settle matters not left to the architect’s decision is in¬ 
effective as to such matters. 

Even after a certificate has been given which according to 
the contract is finally binding on the parties, it may be impeached 
on various grounds so as not to bind the owner to pay for the work 
certified to. Fraud or mistake are generally grounds for avoiding 
it. The wilful disregard by the architect of his duty has been held 
a ground for avoiding the certificate; as has the concealment of 
defects by the builder, and collusion between the contractor and 
one of the parties. As to just what facts constitute a ground for 
disregarding the certificate, the law differs in the different states. 
The law in some states is that if an architect gives a certificate for 
work which subsequently shows imperfections which have been 
concealed from the architect and which he could not have discovered 
by the use of reasonable care in inspection, such certificate does 
not waive such imperfections, and the owner need not pay the full 
contract or certificate price for such work. The law in other states, 
on the other hand, is that nothing short of fraud or collusion be¬ 
tween the contractor and the architect will excuse the owner from 
payment according to the certificate. Some states even go so far 
as to say that even fraud will not excuse the owner. In such cases, 
however, the owner would have a claim against the architect for 
his loss. Of course each case depends on the wording of the con¬ 
tract. Where under the contract the certificate is merely an ex¬ 
pression of the architect’s opinion that the work is in compliance 
with the provisions of the contract, such certificate cannot be con- 


345 




32 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


elusive evidence of the performance of the contract. The question 
can arise only under contracts which provide that each party shall 
be bound by the certificate. Where on any ground the certificate 
can be disregarded, the owner is enabled to make a claim for de¬ 
fects or omissions which would be excluded were he bound by the 
certificate. The fact that the work certified to is not entirely com¬ 
pleted, or that the architect has estimated the work done pursuant 
to the contract as less than the work actually done* or made a mere 
mistake or error in judgment, does not constitute fraud vitiating 
the certificate, or raise a valid ground for impeachment. There 
may therefore be negligence on the part of the architect in giving 
a certificate which would give rise to a right of action against him 
on the part of the owner, but which would not affect the binding 
nature of the certificate; for the architect would be responsible to 
liis employer for his failure to use care and skill in giving the cer¬ 
tificate as in other parts of his work. 

To resume the subjects last treated: The architect’s certifi¬ 
cate has, as between owner and contractor, whatever force is as¬ 
signed to it by their contract; if they have made it merely a con¬ 
dition precedent to payment, then it is important only to entitle 
the contractor to recover, and he may even recover without it under 
certain circumstances varying in different jurisdictions; the certi¬ 
ficate would have no further effect in binding,the parties, and 
would be only prima facie evidence of the facts stated in it; it 
could be contradicted by the owner, if, for instance he claimed 
damages for defects the existence of which was inconsistent with 
the certificate. If, however, the parties have agreed to be bound 
by the certificate, then the owner could not recover in such a case 
unless he was prepared to show that there were grounds for disre¬ 
garding the certificate, as above stated. 

A question might arise as to an architect’s power to withdraw 
or to alter a certificate once given. If there were such cause as 
would furnish ground for disregarding the certificate, such as a 
fraudulent concealment from the architect, clearly he should be at 
liberty to withdraw it. Should the architect, however, attempt to 
withdraw or alter a certificate merely to correct his own mistake, 
and should the contractor refuse to submit to the desired change, 
the architect would be put in an awkward position. The certificate 


348 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


33 


given would be sufficient under the contract to fix the rights of the 
parties, and there would be no ground for setting it aside. For 
his own negligence he would be answerable to the owner; but 
there seems to be no ground on which he could insist on a return 
of the certificate. 

Where the certificate is based on measurements, as is fre¬ 
quently the case with interim certificates, it would seem that the 
contractor has a right to be notified and to be present at the taking 
of such measurements even though it is not expressly provided 
for in the contract. As the courts are not unanimous upon the 
question of the necessity of such notice, it would be well, although 
not in all cases legally obligatory, for the architect, whenever he 
knows there is or may be a misunderstanding between the parties, 
to give them opportunity to be heard before his decision. 

As to the signing of certificates where a firm of architects 
are employed, the signature of a certificate should of course be in 
the firm name. Whether one partner has power to sign is an 
ordinary question of the law of agency as applied to the subject 
of partnership. It would seem that a partner who had charge of 
the work undoubtedly has such authority. If the various mem¬ 
bers of the firm have participated in the work it would of course 
be only prudent that all should be consulted and expressly author¬ 
ize the issuance of the certificate. 

The subject of the architect’s liability to the contractor for 
unjustly refusing to give a certificate is treated under the heading 
64 Liability ”. 

As Regards the Settlement of Disputes. As already shown, 
an agreement between owner and contractor that the architect’s 
certificate shall be conclusive between them is binding, and under 
such an agreement the architect’s certificate can be disregarded 
only on certain grounds. The building agreement may in like 
manner give binding effect to the architect’s determination of 
various matters, and such agreement may be binding upon the 
parties. In connection with such agreemer^s, however, the legal 
principles before stated in connection with arbitration clauses (un¬ 
der the heading “Legality of Contract”) is important. Under 
the law as there stated, general provisions for arbitration of dis¬ 
puted points are not binding. The proper way of drawing these 


347 




34 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


clauses for the settlement of disputed matters is to make the de¬ 
cision of the architect a condition precedent to any action upon a 
disputed point. The decision of the architect may then be made 
conclusive upon both parties, and in accordance with the intention 
of the parties will be enforced by a court. 

Wherever the architect acts as referee to determine matters 
in dispute he should of course act with impartial justice towards 
the parties. As he is employed and paid by the owner, and as his 
functions under the building contract are largely for the purpose 
of protecting the owner’s interest, it may be somewhat difficult for 
him to take an unbiased attitude. His position is in fact anomal¬ 
ous. Engaged and paid by the owner, often with a personal interest 
to keep the cost within fixed limits, looking chiefly after the inter¬ 
ests of the owner, for whom he may be for some purposes the agent, 
he is nevertheless called upon to weigh certain matters with a fair 
and undiscriminating regard for the rights both of the owner and 
of another person having directly opposite interests. Yet the refer¬ 
ence of disputed points to him assumes that he will take such an 
impartial attitude, and the binding force of his decision would be 
destroyed if it could be shown that he had decided a question not 
with judicial impartiality, but as a partisan. It may therefore be 
said that in his function of adjusting disputes, the architect acts 
in a quasi-judicial capacity. 

As to Inspection. The ordinary contract provides that the 
contractor shall furnish proper facilities for inspection by the archi¬ 
tect, and shall replace materials and take down work condemned by 
the architect as unsound, improper or failing to conform to the 
contract. The architect is under obligations to the owner to use 
reasonable diligence to see that the materials used and the work 
done conform to the plans and specifications, and will be liable for 
damage caused by failure to use such diligence. Nevertheless the 
matter of inspection is so related to other functions of the architect, 
such as the granting of certificates, and the settlement of disputed 
points, that it seems the architect must, in many cases at least, act 
in a quasi-judicial capacity, rather than as agent for the owner, in 
making inspections. 

The architect should require the contractor to pull down and 
to do over any work visibly not in accordance with the plans and 


848 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


35 


specifications. The exact means by which the architect may make 
his inspection are not defined. In one case it was held that the 
architect might properly drill enough holes in metal columns 
reasonably to satisfy himself they were of the required thickness. 
Of course any method of inspection which substantially injured 
or weakened the work would not under ordinary circumstances be 
permissible. Where parts of the work are concealed before the 
architect has had an opportunity to inspect them, assuming that 
the architect was properly performing his duty of inspecting and 
that such concealment when made was a necessary part of the 
contractor’s work, it would seem that the architect could have the 
covered part removed so that he may inspect the interior. If this 
interior should prove to be made of poorer material or workman¬ 
ship than that called for by the contract, the architect might order 
it removed and replaced correctly, and the cost of the tearing down 
for inspection, the removal, and the replacing should all be paid 
for by the contractor. But if the interior proved to be according 
to the contract, it would seem that the owner should pay the cost 
of the tearing down and rebuilding, and that allowance for any 
delay caused thereby should be made to the contractor. But when 
the architect delays or is remiss in his inspection or in making 
objections to the work or material, and in consequence thereof 
parts of the work or material are concealed without any wrong in¬ 
tent on the part of the contractor, but in the ordinary course of 
the work, then it would seem that the architect should bear the 
expense of removing the concealing parts even when the concealed 
parts are not in accordance with the plans and specifications. 
Again, it seems that if the contractor concealed part of his work 
for the purpose of avoiding inspection of it, and such concealment 
was in no way due to wrongful delay in inspection by the archi¬ 
tect, then the contractor should pay the cost of tearing down, re¬ 
moving and replacing the concealing parts, even though the in¬ 
terior proved to be in accordance with the plans and specifications. 
In short, the builder must give the architect a reasonable oppor¬ 
tunity to inspect the work and materials, and the architect on his 
part must use his right of inspection within a reasonable time and 
in a reasonable manner. 


349 



36 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


la view of the above observations it is desirable to insert in 
the contract a provision that the inspection of work which cannot 
be examined properly during the architect’s ordinary visits of 
supervision, shall be made at the expense of the contractor on the 
demand of the architect. 

As to Other Powers Under the Building Contract. Wher¬ 
ever any act of the architect has by the building contract been 
given a certain force as regards owner and builder, the architect 
must be careful to make his action exactly like that described 
in the contract in order that the agreed force may attach to it. 
Whatever authority or power is given the architect is strictly con¬ 
strued by the courts; that is, the architect must exercise his au¬ 
thority or power strictly in the manner provided therefor in the 
contract, and if he exercises it in any other manner, it is not bind¬ 
ing on the other parties. For example, an architect who may by 
the contract give written orders for extras or for variations from 
the contract, has no authority to give oral orders, and the owner 
will not be bound by any such oral orders. What constitutes a 
written order for variations from.the contract is often a very diffi¬ 
cult question to determine, Some courts hold that detailed plans 
are written orders for variations from the contract as represented 
by general plans, while other courts hold that they are not written 
orders within the meaning of the contract. This is often an im¬ 
portant matter, because if there is a variance between the general 
and detailed plans, and the builder constructs according to the 
detailed plans, the contract having been made to construct accord¬ 
ing to the general drawings or plans, and the architect having au¬ 
thority to order variations by written orders only, then the builder 
cannot recover the contract price unless such detailed plans are con¬ 
sidered as constituting written orders within the meaning of the 
contract. 

Relation of the Architect to the Owner. An architect, like 
any other professional man, impliedly contracts with his employer 
that he has the ordinary skill, knowledge, and judgment possessed 
by men of his profession, and that he will use this skill, care and 
judgment in the interest of his employer, and will act with per¬ 
fect honesty. If legal damage arises from defects in the plans or 
specifications which are the result of failure to exercise the re- 


350 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


37 


quu*ed skill, knowledge, or judgment, the architect is liable to the 
owner for such damage. In a general way it may be said that 
this knowledge and skill required includes the knowledge and 
skill necessary to planning buildings or parts of buildings such 
as those planned by the architect, a knowledge of the qualities and 
strength of materials used in such buildings, the weight of the 
structures, the relationship of the various operations to be per¬ 
formed by the many trades represented in building, and a knowl¬ 
edge of all other matters directly related to drawing plans and 
specifications. 

In addition to this knowledge of the fundamental laws of na¬ 
ture, of materials, etc., aft architect represents himself as possessed 
of a knowledge of the statutes, ordinances, and laws relating to 
buildings and to the erection of buildings of the place where the 
structure is to be located. It would seem, however, that he would 
not be charged with knowledge of the decisions of inspectors or 
referees in regard to points left indefinite by the statutes, ordi¬ 
nances, or building laws of the particular locality, unless such de¬ 
cisions are in the court or public records. The architect is like¬ 
wise liable for his failure to use reasonable skill, etc., in any re¬ 
spect in which he acts as agent for the owner. In an action to 
enforce such liability what constitutes reasonable care, skill, and 
judgment is a question of fact for the jury to determine. Unless 
it is specifically provided otherwise, the architect who undertakes 
to superintend a building is bound net only to furnish proper 
plans, but to see that the structure is at least reasonably well con¬ 
structed, that the foundations are sufficiently deep and otherwise 
protected to prevent settling or cracking of the walls, that the 
contractors do not put in defective workmanship or materials, or 
make material variations from the plans and specifications, such 
as a competent architect using the requisite care, skill, and atten¬ 
tion would detect and prevent, or detect in time to have remedied. 
Where the architect has the duty merely of furnishing plans 
and specifications, such plans and specifications must be reason¬ 
ably accurate and suitable. The architect does not guarantee that 
his work is perfect or that the building will be a success, he 
merely contracts that they will be as near perfect and successful 
as the average competent architect would make them. 


351 



38 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


The architect is held, in respect to loyalty to his employer, to 
the rules applicable to an agent. The impropriety of his having 
any secret financial interest in the work has been spoken of under 
the general laws of agency. 

Inasmuch as the contract with the architect is for personal 
service demanding skill and judgment, the contract does not sur¬ 
vive the architect but is terminated by his death. Therefore his 
executors or administrators are not liable for the failure to fulfill 
the contract caused by the architect’s death. 

Inasmuch as the architect performs a personal service, one 
demanding the exercise of special skill, judgment and discretion, 
he cannot, in the absence of special authority, delegate the per¬ 
formance of such services to another because of the rule of law 
already stated. As this rule does not apply to the purely minis¬ 
terial duties of an architect, such as measuring or draughting, 
these latter duties may be delegated even in the absence of express 
authority. 

Architect as Agent for the Owner. The architect should be 
extremely careful that he has authority from the owner before as¬ 
suming to bind him in any way. It is desirable to have such 
authority express and definite. In important matters, or with un¬ 
reliable clients, written authority should be obtained. The mere fact 
that the building contract provides for some action by the architect 
as agent of the owner, may be evidence of authority from the owner 
to the architect to take such action on the owner’s behalf, but is 
not conclusive evidence of such authority. In other words, if the 
action of the architect which is contemplated by the contract is 
action as agent of the owner, then the architect needs authority 
from the owner before taking such action, and the provision of the 
contract may not be enough to show such authority to have been 
granted. If, however, the action of the architect contemplated by 
the building contract is action in a quasi-judicial capacity, no au¬ 
thority from the owner is necessary to empower the architect to 
take such action. His action then derives its force not from the 
authority of the owner but directly from the contract itself. It is 
sometimes difficult, as has already been seen, to tell in just what 
capacity the architect acts in a given function, and considerable 
caution is necessary on his part not to assume an authority as agent 


352 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


30 


which has not been granted, and so render himself liable without 
so intending. To illustrate a function of the architect often pro¬ 
vided for by the contract, but requiring authority by the owner, 
we may take the matter of ordering extras or alterations, where 
such ordering is provided for by the contract between owner and 
contractor. 

For the purpose of showing the ordinary limits of the architect’s 
powers, attention is called to certain acts for which he is not em¬ 
powered. In the absence of special authority, the architect has no 
authority to modify the building contractor alter plans or specifica¬ 
tions, to extend the time for completion, to change the original 
contract, to bind his employer for extra work, to accept an inferior 
class of work, to waive an agreement by the owner as to the terms 
of payment, to excuse the contractor from any of the provisions of 
the contract, to employ another to do work which the contractor 
has undertaken, to substitute another for the original contractor 
in the performance of the work or the payment therefor, to super¬ 
vise the letting of sub-contracts and the employment of workmen, 
or to consider, in making up his statement of the accounts between 
the owner and architect, any accounts outstanding in other matters 
between the parties. The architect cannot, without express 
authority, bind the owner to pay for work or materials. He is not 
the owner’s agent for the purpose of receiving notice of an assign¬ 
ment of payments due from the owner. 

Where the architect is for any purpose the agent of the owner, 
there will, according to the general rule of agency, be various im¬ 
plied powers necessary to carry out the purposes of the agency. 
The extent of these will vary with the facts of each case. If the 
architect acts as superintendent of construction, the powers may 
be quite extensive. As circumstances may enlarge an agent’s 
powers, an architect might in an emergency be authorized to take 
extraordinary steps for the protection of the owner’s rights or 
property. 

In general, it may be repeated, the architect should be care¬ 
ful not to exceed his powers, and wherever practicable should have 
his authority definitely stated in writing. One regard in which 
architects sometimes exceed their powers may be especially men¬ 
tioned; that of incurring unnecessary expense for artistic reasons. 


353 



40 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


Although an architect may have authority in a given case to bind 
the owner in ordering necessary materials, furnishings or extras, 
he is not necessarily justified in increasing the expense therefor, 
on grounds of taste. 

Contractor’s Relation to the Architect. By the ordinary 
building contract, the contractor enters into obligations with the 
owner only. To the architect, who is not a party to the contract, the 
contractor owes no contractual duties which the architect may en¬ 
force in law or in equity. However, by the contract it may become 
the builder’s duty to the owner to obey the architect’s instructions, 
to do the work to his satisfaction, and the like. These duties of 
the builder can be enforced only by the owner. Therefore, accord¬ 
ing to the rights of the owner, the architect may be said to be 
entitled to obedience as provided in the contract. 

Architect’s Duty Toward the Contractor. Although the 
architect is employed by the owner he must act fairly and honestly 
toward the contractor. This of course precludes any attempt to 
overreach the contractor, or any secret arrangement with the owner 
to deprive the contractor of any money justly due him. 

Thus an architect has been held liable to the builder for dam¬ 
ages sustained by him by reason of a fraudulent refusal to issue 
the certificate made essential by the contract. The architect who 
acts as a superintendent or arbitrator is supposed to act as an im¬ 
partial man of science. Where it is shown that the architect is 
personally interested in favoring the owner at the expense of the 
builder, or vice versa , as where the architect guaranteed or merely 
assured the owner that the whole cost of building would be below 
a certain sum, it has been held that his awards should be set aside 
if they are unjust, in spite of the agreement that his decision shall 
be final and conclusive on all parties. 

It is the architect’s duty to interpret his plans and specifica¬ 
tions when such interpretation is requested by the contractor. 

Discrepancy in Plans. It sometimes happens that the details 
in the plans dornot agree with the specifications prepared by the 
architect to go with the plans, or the small scale drawings do not 
agree with the detail drawings. When this occurs it is necessary 
to determine which—the plans or specifications, the small scale 
drawings or the detail drawings—shall prevail. This question 


354 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


41 


arises most frequently after work has been performed according to 
the plans or specifications, the small scale drawings or the detail 
drawings, and the other side claims the work does not conform to 
the provisions of the contract, relying on conflicting provisions 
elsewhere. Then it becomes necessary to determine which is con¬ 
trolling. Where there is a discrepancy between the drawings and 
specifications, or between the small scale drawings and the detail 
drawings, there is some conflict as to what the order of preference 
should be. The more general rule, however, is that specifications 
take precedence over drawings and detail drawings over small scale 
drawings. This rule must of course give way where in any con¬ 
tract the provisions indicate a contrary intention. Where there is 
a discrepancy between two sets of drawings of equal importance it 
seems well settled that the contractor is bound only by that set 
which he has seen and on which he has based his estimates. 
Where the discrepancy is between two different clauses in the 
specifications the facts of the case control; the question is decided 
on common sense rather than on technical reasoning. 

The greatest care should be taken to avoid such questions. 

Limit of Cost. Where nothing is said about fences, terraces, 
grounds or other unusual items, the limit of cost given the archi¬ 
tect will be supposed to cover only the bare cost of building, usu¬ 
ally without screens, outside windows, or any grading or planting 
beyond the smoothing of the ground within six or Seven feet of the 
building, and the removal of the surplus gravel, dirt or clay from 
the excavations to some convenient part of the premises. The archi¬ 
tect’s fees and the expense of superintending the building are not 
regarded as a part of the estimated cost. It is, however, far safer 
here as elsewhere to have a distinct understanding between the 
owner and architect. 

Any estimate by the architect of the cost can be approximate 
only, because the cost depends on so many matters which are be¬ 
yond the knowledge of the architect; for example, combinations of 
local mechanics, monopolies, approaching bankruptcy of the builder, 
etc. In view of these uncertainties it is considered unreasonable 
to hold the architect to a strict compliance with the owner’s wishes 
in regard to cost, and the owner has no right to dismiss the archi¬ 
tect because the contractor’s bid is higher than the limit of cost 


35ft 



42 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


given, unless such bid is greatly in excess of the limit. In the 
event of a moderate excess it is common for the architect to aid 
the owner in modifying the plans so as to come within the limit 
without making any extra charges for such aid. As to what is a 
reasonable or unreasonable excess of the limit fixed there is no 
established rule. It may, however, be said that the courts are 
rather lenient to the architect in this matter. 

There are two ways of providing for an excess of the estimate 
over the limit given. One is to provide by agreement before the 
work is begun that the plans may be returned to the architect and 
no payment made if the contractor’s estimate is more than 25 per 
cent in excess of the limit. The other way is to make it a condi¬ 
tion precedent to acceptance of the plans that the contractor’s price 
shall not be above a certain amount. It is strongly recommended 
that one of these methods should be adopted. 

Liability of the Architect. It has already been stated that 
an architect impliedly represents himself to be possessed of the 
skill and knowledge possessed by the average architect in that lo¬ 
cality. If in fact he does not possess such skill and knowledge, 
and loss results to his employer because of the lack of such skill 
and judgment, the architect is liable to his employer for such loss. 
For a similar reason and in a similar w T ay the architect is liable 
for damage resulting from his failure to use care, diligence and 
judgment in the performance of his duties. The mere fact, how¬ 
ever, that the plans, structure, or work are not absolutely accurate 
or successful does not make the architect liable to the owner for 
damage resulting therefrom, for the architect does not guarantee 
absolute accuracy, perfection, or success. It is only when such 
inaccuracy or failure is caused by the failure on the part of the 
architect to have and to exercise the skill, knowledge, or judgment 
he represents himself as having, that the architect is liable. The 
damage for which the architect may become liable by reason of his 
failure to possess or to use the usual skill, etc., may be for the in¬ 
creased cost of the building due to remedying his mistakes, or it 
may be for damage directly caused by the defects in other ways. 
The fact that the owner was present while the work was being 
performed does not excuse any neglect on the part of the architect- 
The owner has a right to rely on the architect’s professional knowl- 


356 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


43 


edge and skill; and if lie is so negligent as to allow a building or 
a part of it to be constructed in a dangerous or doubtful manner, 
be is not excused from tbe liability incurred by such neglect by 
the fact that such construction was permitted at tbe request of tbe 
owner. Only a valid specific agreement between the architect and 
tbe owner to tbe effect that tbe owner would bold tbe architect 
excused from any liability to him arising from such dangerous or 
doubtful construction, would relieve tbe architect of liability to 
tbe owner. It is needless to remark that such an agreement 
would be an extremely dangerous one for an owner to make. 

Where an architect undertakes to superintend construction he 
is liable to tbe owner for any damage resulting from material 
variation from tbe plans and specifications, on tbe part of tbe con¬ 
tractor, from poor construction, or tbe use of poor material, if an 
architect using tbe ordinary care and skill usually bestowed by 
architects acting in such a capacity, would have prevented the im¬ 
proper work, or detected it in time to have it remedied. Under this 
rule an architect is held not to be liable for all the minor details of 
tbe work, as in one case for tbe failure of tbe builder to mortise 
joints with pegs where tbe joints were in tbe roof of tbe porch. 

Where an architect acts as superintendent of construction, 
be is not, of course, liable for loss arising solely from the neg¬ 
ligence or incapacity of tbe contractor, unless the architect is 
himself in fault, for be would be answerable for tbe fault of an- 
another only on tbe ground of agency, and tbe contractor is not 
tbe architect’s agent. Wherever tbe duties of an architect are en¬ 
larged by a special agency in any case, be is liable for failure of skill, 
care, or fidelity in such enlarged duties. Tbe fact that tbe con¬ 
tractor also is liable for damages resulting from poor construction 
does not relieve tbe architect from liability arising from bis own 
neglect, nor does it necessarily give tbe architect tbe right to reim¬ 
bursement from tbe contractor. They may both be liable for tbe 
full amount of tbe damage, and tbe owner may elect whether to 
sue tbe architect or tbe contractor or both together. 

If the architect on his own responsibility, without authority 
from the owner or without claiming to act as his agent, orders 
extra work, he is personally liable for such work. 


357 



44 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


If an architect is negligent in his duties, and as a result an 
accident occurs in a building after completion, by which some 
stranger suffers damage, the architect would probably never be 
held liable to the stranger. The architect’s sole legal duty in the 
premises seems to be toward the owner, to whom only he is liable 
for failure to do proper work. 

On the other hand, an architect may in the course of his work 
come under legal duties to others than the contractor and owner, 
the breach of which may render him legally liable. For instance, 
an architect, having general charge and direction of the work, 
adopted a method of construction which did not provide adequate 
support, a defect which resulted in injury to a workman, and the 
architect was held liable to the injured man. The distinction be¬ 
tween the cases is that in making plans for a building the architect 
is in effect an independent contractor whose sole duty is to his em¬ 
ployer. In the latter case, however, the architect was acting as 
the owner’s agent in superintending construction, and as agent 
was charged with his principal’s duty to provide safe ways and 
works for those engaged in the construction. It would extend this 
article too far to consider all the duties which the owner may owe 
to third parties, and which, in special cases where the architect 
acts as agent for the owner, may affect the architect himself. 
Suffice it to say that where one undertakes to act as agent it is 
incumbent upon him to act with regard to the rights of third parties 
against his principal in the premises. The express direction of his 
principal will not excuse the agent for so acting in his agency as 
to cause legal injury to third parties. 

A word should be added under this heading about the possibil¬ 
ity of liability for the acts of others. Where some assistant causes 
damage by his negligence or wrongdoing, if he can be shown to be 
the agent of the architect, the latter is liable, according to the gen¬ 
eral rule of agency. 

It has been held that an architect is liable to the contractor if 
the architect fraudulently refuses to give a certificate to the con¬ 
tractor. But a refusal to grant a certificate where one is due, 
which arises only from a lack of care or skill, does not render the 
architect liable to the contractor. If the architect’s fraud is in 


858 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


45 


collusion with the owner, then both may be sued together by the 
contractor, or either may be sued separately. 

Public Officials. An architect, acting as a public official as, 
for instance, city architect, will, of course, be in a different 
position from an architect in private practice. An architect em¬ 
ployed in a public capacity for a regular salary is probably not 
liable for lack of skill or care. It would be beyond the scope of this 
article to consider in any detail the positions into which, as a pub¬ 
lic officer, an architect might come. Upon undertaking such work, 
a man will, of course, consider the nature and responsibilities of 
the office. 

INVITATIONS TO COMPETE. 

When a person, public body, or corporation advertises inviting 
architects to send in competitive designs, all designs sent in should 
conform exactly to the terms of the invitation sent out. If this is 
not done the design submitted is not entitled to consideration. 
The common form of advertisement for designs, and the submis¬ 
sion of designs conforming with the terms of the advertisement, 
do not constitute a contract. The advertisement is merely a re¬ 
quest for offers. The submission of the design is an offer, and 
becomes binding only on acceptance by the party advertising. 
Although it seems that this party is not bound to accept the design 
representing lowest bid, it is very desirable for the sake of clear¬ 
ness, to put into the advertisement a clause reserving the right to 
reject any or all designs submitted. Of course where the adver¬ 
tisement is for bids for public work, if a statute or city ordinance 
required that the work be awarded to the lowest bidder, then the 
party making the lowest bid may enforce his right to the award. 
A request for plans is, of course, unlikely to come within such a 
statute. An invitation to compete may, however, be made in such 
a manner as to constitute an offer, and give some one of the*com- 
petitors a right to hold the persons making the offer bound by a 
contract. For this purpose, as has already been shown, the plans 
must exactly correspond with all terms of the offer. 

Ownership of Plans. In the absence of any agreement as to 
the ownership of plans, it is impossible to make any general state¬ 
ment as to the law on thgt point. Whether the property in the 


359 




46 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


plans passes to the employer, or whether, on the analogy of notes 
made by other professional men, such as physicians and lawyers, 
the property in the plans remains in the architect, the righ‘t to the 
use and possession during the construction being in the builder, is 
a question to be answered only upon examination of the law in 
each jurisdiction. The tendency of the lower courts of the differ¬ 
ent states seems to be toward the former view. It is however said 
to be the almost universal custom in England and the United States 
for the architect to retain the plans after the completion of the 
structure. And it is now customary to insert in the building con¬ 
tract a stipulation that plans shall remain the property of the 
architect. While this is evidence of the agreement with the archi¬ 
tect to the same effect, it would seem desirable that this agreement 
be expressly made between the two persons interested, the owner 
and the architect. 

However doubtful the actual ownership of the architect’s plans 
may be, it is clear that until they are published, as it is called, that 
is, given out by the architect so that anyone may see them, no one 
except his client has the right to copy, reproduce, or otherwise 
use them, without the architect’s permission. This right of the 
architect not to have his plans used without his permission ceases 
after publication. Whether plans have been published is a ques¬ 
tion to be decided on the facts of each case, but it is clear that by 
selling the plans outright the architect loses all right not to have 
them used. Where plans are submitted to competition for a cash 
prize, it has been held that the plans awarded prizes become the 
property of the party inviting the competition. Whether or not 
an architect’s plans or drawings of a building may be copyrighted 
is an open question. 

Compensation. The architect’s legal right to compensation 
is, of course, a contract right, either under an express contract, if 
one exists, or under an implied contract. If an express contract 
fixes the rate of compensation, of course the architect’s rights are 
fixed by that. If there is an express contract which does not fix 
the amount of compensation, or if there is no express contract 
covering the employment, the architect’s right is to charge so much 
as his services are reasonably worth. While from a legal point of 
view it would be wiser to have the rate of compensation settled by 


360 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


47 


the binding agreement of the parties, it is probable that in most 
cases of the employment of an architect, the matter of his fees is 
not expressly agreed upon, and in case of dispute the architect 
would be left to receive under the implied contract what his serv¬ 
ices are fairly worth. One reason for this practice is the exist¬ 
ence of a customary schedule of charges, which architects are ac¬ 
customed to demand and to receive for their services. This schedule* 
is framed by the American Institute of Architects. The influence 
of this schedule on the question of compensation is an impor¬ 
tant one. 

In the first place, it is obvious that rules made by a body of 
architects cannot, as such, bind persons employing the architects. 
These schedule rates may, however, be of some importance in 
either one or two ways. In the first place, it may be that the pay¬ 
ment of these schedule rates is a custom which must be taken to 
have been in the minds of both parties, and binding upon them as 
a part of their contract. Custom may be thus shown for the pur¬ 
pose of proving a term of contract, provided always that the con¬ 
tract does not expressly contradict the custom. 

Such a custom must, however, be reasonable; and courts have 
been of opinion that schedules similar to this in question were not, 
as they applied to various cases, reasonable. Moreover, the cus¬ 
tom must be proved to have been known to both parties to be af¬ 
fected, either by showing actual knowledge on their parts, or by 
showing it to be so general in the locality that the inference is 
irresistible that both knew it. It is greatly to the advantage of 
an architect whose compensation has not been fixed by agreement, 
to be able to hold his employer to this schedule, and therefore im¬ 
portant to bring notice of the schedule home to the employer. For 
this purpose the schedule is sometimes printed on an office letter 
head, and several of these letter heads used in early correspondence 
before woi*k on plans actually begins. From a lawyer’s standpoint 
this is but a makeshift to take the place of the definite understand¬ 
ing which should be had. 

Even if the schedule is not admissible in evidence as showing 
a customary term which is to be read into the agreement between 
architect and owner, it may be admissible merely to show what is 

*See Appendix II. 


361 




48 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


reasonable compensation. This is obviously quite a different mat¬ 
ter from proving it to be a binding clause in the contract. Other 
evidence can be heard to contradict that furnished by the schedule, 
and the result in a litigated case would be doubtful. 

Unless it is clearly understood that the plans and specifica¬ 
tions are to be submitted subject to approval, an owner by con¬ 
tracting with an architect for plans and specifications and by 
receiving them makes himself liable to pay the architect whether 
he uses the plans and specifications or not. ' Where, however, it is 
understood at the outset that the plans and specifications are made 
conditional on the approval of the owner, if they do not meet with 
his approval, the architect cannot recoyer for them. It would 
seem, however, that the owner should give the architect a reason¬ 
able opportunity to alter the plans and specifications so as to meet 
his wishes. It has been held that after rejecting and returning 
the plans several times, the owner is at liberty to procure plans 
elsewhere. 

Practical Suggestions. Before drawing plans an architect 
should inspect the proposed site, and determine the nature of the 
soil. If the building is to be on old foundations, he should 
observe these foundations, and determine their strength. If im¬ 
portant he should ascertain the character of the subsoil. He should 
also note any adjoining buildings, and the effect they may have 
upon the site in question. He should inquire of the owner about 
any easements, or rights in the owner’s land, which other persons 
may have, such as rights of way, or what in this country are not 
common, rights of light and air, and about any party-w T all agree¬ 
ment affecting the premises. 

The plans when completed should (1) conform with the in¬ 
structions given the architect, (2) comply with all laws which may 
be applicable, (3) not infringe the right of any third person, (4) be 
in accordance with all rules of the architect’s science and art. It 
must be remembered that the employer’s mere approval will not 
be an excuse for faults of which the employer is not a competent 
judge. 

In regard to the agreement between the architect and his em¬ 
ployer as to compensation, and as to powers which the architect is 
to exercise as the owner’s agent, it is best to have a clear agree- 


368 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


49 


ment in all respects. While a contract made by word of mouth is 
(aside from the^statute of frauds or other provisions of law) as valid 
as a contract in writing, the latter has the advantage of precision, af¬ 
fording a certain means of showing what the agreement was. In 
all transactions, therefore, in which there is any possibility of dis¬ 
pute, it is desirable to have communications by letter rather than 
by word of mouth. An architect should make a practice of hav¬ 
ing business communications in writing, keeping letter press or 
carbon copies of all letters sent out, with some record of mailing, 
and should preserve all letters addressed to him bearing on his 
business. 

If the architect is to act as the agent of the owner in making 
the building contract, it is especially necessary to have his exact 
powers in the way of accepting or rejecting offers made clear. In 
advertising for bids, the right should be reserved to reject any or 
all offers. 

If the architect has power to make the building contract in 
behalf of his employer, he should use great caution not only in 
choosing a contractor but also in his dealing with the successful 
and the unsuccessful bidders to avoid legal complications. Having 
first made it clear, by reserving the right to reject any or all offers, 
that he is merely asking for offers, and not himself making an 
offer to be accepted by the lowest bidder, it may be well to make 
his acceptance of the chosen offer conditional in some way accord¬ 
ing to the circumstances. The acceptance may, for instance, be 
upon condition that a satisfactory contract be executed within a 
certain time, and provision may also be made for a bond with 
sureties, to be furnished by the contractor for the fulfilment of the 
contract. 

Where the architect is entrusted with the drawing of the con¬ 
tract, he may find, in ordinary cases, that the “ Uniform Contract” 
is sufficient. In some cases, he may w T ish to modify this in many 
ways as his experience dictates. It is well for an architect to 
make notes on forms passing under his notice and on his experience 
with the various clauses of building contracts. The libraries will 
furnish books containing model agreements which will be found 
suggestive. The drawing of contracts for special cases is essentially 
a matter calling for judgment and experience. It is therefore 


363 





50 


LEGAL RELATIONS 


impossible to give any directions here beyond those which are sug¬ 
gested in various parts of the article. In general, it is important 
in drawing a contract to consider carefully whether the words are 
so clear as to admit of only one interpretation. Clearness is best 
secured by making one carefully drawn statement of a point rather 
than by repetition in various forms of statement. It is to be con¬ 
sidered whether general or specific words will best serve a purpose. 
By providing that a contractor shall furnish safe appliances the 
owner’s, interests will generally be better served than by specifying 
the kind of appliances to be used. If the kind of appliance were 
specified, then the risk of its safety would be transferred to the 
owner. On the other hand where the object is to prescribe a cer¬ 
tain material, that material should be so specifically described that 
no other will come within the description. 

Attention may be called to the fact that a building could be 
built, and a contract drawn, on a very different plan from that of 
the “Uniform Contract”. For instance, instead of a contractor 
in the ordinary way, a person could be employed to purchase sup¬ 
plies and hire labor as the agent of the owner, receiving a salary 
or a lump sum for the work, and always subject to the owner’s 
orders in every respect. Or the details of the “Uniform Con¬ 
tract” may be much altered; for instance, the certificate of the 
architect may be placed on a very different footing, or a provision 
may require monthly instalments for extras. Many other possible 
changes wfill suggest themselves to the student. 

In drawing a contract one should be careful to specify just 
what in the way of papers, plans and drawings, goes to make up 
the contract, and to identify and refer accurately to such papers. 
The provisions for interim payments should be so arranged as to 
assure the owner of having always a sufficient margin between the 
amount paid to the contractor and the value of materials and labor 
furnished, as a protection in case of difficulties which may result 
in an unexpected increase of expense in completing the work. 
Above all, do not blindly use printed forms, without reading and 
considering all printed portions, and filling in all necessary blanks. 

During the progress of the work it is necessary for the con¬ 
tractor’s protection that the premises should be insured. Other¬ 
wise, as the contract is clearly an entire contract, if the work should 


464 




LEGAL RELATIONS 


51 


be destroyed, lie would be unable to recover compensation for the 
portion damaged. The “ Uniform Contract 55 provides for insur¬ 
ance by the owner in the names of owner and contractor. 

During the progress of the work, care must be taken in mak¬ 
ing changes in the contract to safeguard the interests of the parties, 
and to leave the contract in ascertainable and proper shape. If 
the contractor is excused from a portion of the work, it should be 
clearly understood that an allowance is to be made therefor. If 
the allowance can be fixed at the time, a source of possible future 
dispute will be avoided. Changes in the contract should be made 
in writing, if not in the form of a contract, at least in letters ex¬ 
pressing the agreement of both parties. The common saying that 
“Silence gives consent”, if relied upon, will be productive of 
difficulties. 

An architect should have a regular system of bookkeeping 
which will enable him at any time to show how much labor of his 
own and of his office force has gone into any matter. Difficulties 
over fees cannot be foreseen, and the office system should provide 
for such contingencies by furnishing all the material needed for 
recovery on a quantum meruit if necessary. 


385 




APPENDIX I. 



THE UNIFORM CONTRACT. 

Form of contract adopted and recommended for general use, by the American Institute sr 
Architects and the National Association of Builders. 

Revised 1902. 


^greemeaf, made the. 

in the year one thousand nine hundred and.by and between 


party of the first part (hereinafter designated the Contractor ), and 


party of the second part (hereinafter designated the Owner ). 

Witnesseth that the Contractor , in consideration of the agreements herein made by the 
Owner , agree with the said Owner as follows: 

Article I. The Contractor shall and will provide all the materials and perform 
all the work for the..-.-.-. 


as shown on the drawings and described in the specifications prepared by. 


Architect , which drawings and specifications are identified by the signatures of the 
jiarties hereto, and become hereby a part of this contract. 

Art. II. It is understood and agreed by and between the parties hereto that the 
work included in this contract is to be done under the direction of the said Architect , 

and that.decision as to the true construction and meaning of the drawings and 

specifications shall be final. It is also understood and agreed by and between the parties 
hereto that such additional drawings and explanations as may be necessary to detail and 
illustrate the work to be done are to be furnished by said Architect , and they agi*ee to 
conform to and abide by the same so far as they may be consistent with the purpose and 
intent of the original drawings and specifications referred to in Art. I. 

It is further understood and agreed by the parties hereto that any and all drawings 
and specifications prepared for the purposes of this contract by the said Architect are 

and remain.property, and that all charges for the use of the same, and for the 

services of said Architect , are to be paid by the said owner. 

Art. III. No alterations shall be made in the work except upon written order of 
the Architect ; the amount to be paid by the Owner or allowed by the Contractor by 
virtue of such alterations to be stated in said order. Should the Owner and Contractor 
not agree as to amount to be paid or allowed, the work shall go on under the order 
required above, and in case of failure to agree, the determination of said amount shall be 
referred to arbitration, as provided for in Art. XII of this contract. 

Art. IV. The Contractor shall provide sufficient, safe and proper facilities at all 
times for the inspection of the work by the Architect or.authorized repre¬ 

sentatives; shall, within twenty-four hours after receiving written notice from the Archi¬ 
tect to that effect, proceed to remove from the grounds or buildings all materials con¬ 
demned by..whether worked or unworked, and to take down all portions of the 

work which the Architect shall by like written notice condemn as unsound or improper, 
or as in any way failing to conform to the drawings and specifications, and shall make 
good all work damaged or destroyed thereby. 

Art. V. Should the Contractor at any time refuse or neglect to supply a suffi¬ 
ciency of properk; skilled workmen, or of materials of the proper quality, or fail in any 
respect to prosecute the worn with promptness and diligence, or fail in the performance 
of any of the agreements herein contained, such refusal, neglect or failure being certified 

by the Architect , the Owner shall be at liberty after.days’ written notice to 

the Contractor , to provide any such labor or materials, and to deduct the cost thereof, 
from any money then due or thereafter to become due to the Contractor under this con¬ 
tract; and if the Architect shall certify that such refusal, neglect or failure is sufficieuf 


360 

















APPENDIX 


53 


ground for such action, the Owner shall also he at liberty to terminate the employment 
of the Contractor for the said work and to enter upon the premises and take possession, 
for the purpose of completing the work included under this contract, of all materials, 
tools and appliances thereon, and to employ any other person or persons to finish the 
work, and to provide the materials therefor; and in case of such discontinuance of the 

employment of the Contractor .shall not be entitled to receive any further 

payment under this contract until the said work shall be wholly finished, at which time, if 
the unpaid balance of the amount to be paid under this contract shall exceed the expense in¬ 
curred by the Owner in finishing the work, such excess shall be paid by the Owner to 
the Contractor ; but if such expense shall exceed such unpaid balance, the Contractor 
shall pay the difference to the Owner . The expense incurred by the Owner as herein 
provided, either for furnishing materials or for finishing the work, and any damage in¬ 
curred through such default, shall be audited and certified by the Architect , whose cer¬ 
tificate thereof shall be conclusive upon the parties. 

Art. VI. The Contractor shall complete the several portions, and the whole of the 
work comprehended in this agreement by and at the time or times hereinafter stated, to wit: 


Art. VII. Should the Contractor be delayed in the prosecution or completion of 
the work by the act, neglect or default of the Owner , of the Architect , or of any other 
contractor employed by the Owner upon the work, or by any damage caused by fire, 

lightning, earthquake, cyclone or other casualty for which the Contractor .not 

responsible, or by strikes or lockouts caused by acts of employes, then the time herein 
fixed for the completion of the work shall be extended for a period equivalent to the time 
lost by reason of any or all the causes aforesaid, which extended period shall be deter¬ 
mined and fixed by the Architect ; but no such allowance shall be made unless a claim 
therefor is presented in writing to the Architect within forty-eight hours of the occur¬ 
rence of such delay. 

Art. VIII. The Owner agree to provide all labor and materials essential to the 
conduct of this work not included in this contract in such manner as not to delay its 
progress, and in the event of failure so to do, thereby causing loss to the Contractor , 


agree that.-will reimburse the Contractor for such loss; and the Contractor 

agree that if.shall del ay the progress of the work so as to cause loss for which 


the Owner shall become liable, then.shall reimburse the Owner for such loss. 

Should the Owner and Contractor fail to agree as to the amount of loss comprehended 
in this Article, the determination of the amount shall be referred to arbitration as pro¬ 
vided in Article XII of this contract 

Art. IX. It is hereby mutually agreed between the parties hereto that the sum to 
be paid by the Owner to the Contractor for said work and materials shall be. 

subject to additions and deductions as hereinbefore provided, and that such sum shall be 
paid by the Owner to the Contractor , in current funds, and only upon certificates of 
the Architect , as follows: 


The final payment shall be made within.days 

after the completion of the work included in this contract, and all payments shall bp due 
when certificates for the same are issued. 

If at any time there shall be evidence of any lien or claim for which, if established, 
the Owner of the said premises might become liable, and which is chargeable to the Con¬ 
tractor , the Owner shall have the right to retain out of any payment then due or 

thereafter to become due an amount sufficient to completely indemnify. 

against such lien or claim. Should there prove to be any such claim after all payments 
are made, the Contractor shall refund to the Owner all moneys that the latter may be 
compelled to pay in discharging any lien on said premises made obligatory in consequence 
of the Contractor default. 

Art. X. It is further mutually agreed between the parties hereto that no certificate 
given or payment made under this contract, except the final certificate or final payment, 
shall be conclusive evidence of the performance of this contract, either 'wholly or in part, 
and that no payment shall be construed to be an acceptance of defective "\v ork or impropeV 
materials. 


367 





















54 


APPENDIX 


Art. XI. The Owner shall during the progress of the work maintain insurance on 

said work, in.own name and in the name of the Contractor , against 

loss or damage by fire, lightning, earthquake, cyclone or other casualty. The policies to 
cover all work incorporated in the building, and all materials for the same in or about 
the premises, and shall be made payable to the parties hereto, as their interest may 
appear. 

Art. XII. In case the Owner and Contractor fail to agree in relation to matters 
of payment, allowance or loss referred to in Arts. Ill or VIII of this contract, or should 
either of them dissent from the decision of the Architect referred to in Art. VII of this 
contract, which dissent shall have been filed in writing with, the Architect within ten 
days of the announcement of such decision, then the matter shall be referred to a Board 

of Arbitration consisting of.. 

.-.in behalf of the Owner , and 

.in behalf of the Contractor , 

these two to select a third. The decision of any two of this Board shall be final and bind¬ 
ing on both parties hereto. In event of the death or inability to serve of the party named 
in behalf of the Owner , then the Owner shall select a person in his place; in event of 
the death or inability to serve of the party named in behalf of the Contractor , then the 
Contractor shall select a person in his place; in event of the death or inability to serve 
of the third party, then the remaining arbitrators shall choose a person in his place. 
Each party hereto shall pay one-half of the expense of such reference. 

Art. XIII. The said parties for themselves, their heirs, successors, executors, 
administrators and assigns, do hereby agree to the full performance of the covenants 
herein contained. 

3ll the parties to these presents have hereunto set their 

hands and seals, the day and year first above written. 

In Presence of 


APPENDIX II. 

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTS, AND SCHEDULE OF USUAL AND 

PROPER MINIMUM CHARGES. 

Adopted by The American Institute of Architects and Revised 1903. 

The architect’s professional services consist in making the necessary preliminary 
studies, working drawings, specifications, large scale and full size details, and in the 
general direction and supervision of the work, for which the minimum charge is five per 
cent upon the cost of the work. 

For new buildings, costing less than ten thousand dollars, and for furniture, 
monuments, decorative and cabinet work, it is usual and proper to charge a special fee 
in excess of the above. 

For alterations and additions to existing buildings, the fee is ten per cent upon the 
cost of the work. 

Consultation fees for professional advice are to be paid in proportion to the impor¬ 
tance of the questions involved. 

None of the charges above enumerated covers alterations and additions to contracts, 
drawings and specifications, nor professional or legal services incidental to negotiations for 
site, disputed party walls, right of light, measurement of work, or failure of contractors. 
When such services become necessary, they shall be charged for according to the time 
and trouble involved. 

\\ here heating, ventilating, mechanical, electrical and sanitary problems in a 
building aie of such a nature as to require the assistance of a specialist, the owner is to 


368 








APPENDIX 


55 


pay for such assistance. Chemical and mechanical tests, when required, are to be paid 
for by the owner. 

Necessary traveling expenses are to be paid by the owner. 

Drawings and specifications, as instruments of service, are the property of the 
architect. 

The architect’s payments are due as his work progresses in the following order: 
Upon completion of the preliminary sketches, one-fifth of the entire fee; upon completion 
of working drawings and specifications, two-fifths; the remaining two-fifths being due 
from time to tune in proportion to the amount of work done by the architect in his office 
and at the building. 

Until an actual estimate is received, the charges are based upon the proposed cost 
of the work, and payments are received as installments of the entire fee, which is based 
upon the actual cost to the owner of the building or other work, when completed, including 
all fixtures necessary to render it fit for occupation. The architect is entitled to extra 
compensation for furniture or other articles purchased under his direction. 

If any material or work used in the construction of the building be already upon the 
ground or come into the owner’s possession without expense to him, its value is to be 
added to the sum actually expended upon the building before the architect’s commission 
is computed. 

In case of the abandonment or suspension of the work, the basis of settlement is as 
follows: Preliminary studies, a fee in accordance with the character and magnitude of 
the work; preliminary studies, working drawings and specifications, three-fifths of the 
fee for complete services. 

The supervision of an architect (as distinguished from the continuous personal sup¬ 
erintendence which may be secured by the employment of a clerk of the works) means 
such inspection by the architect, or his deputy, of work in studios and shops, or of a 
building or other work in process of erection, completion or alteration, as he finds neces¬ 
sary to ascertain whether it is being executed in conformity with his drawings and speci¬ 
fications or directions. He is to act in constructive emergencies, to order necessary 
changes and to define the true intent and meaning of the drawings and specifications, and 
he has authority to stop the progress of the work and order its removal when not in 
accordance with them. 

On buildings where the constant services of a superintendent are required, a clerk of 
the works shall be employed by the architect at the owner’s expense. 


* 


369 








REVIEW QUESTIONS. 


PRACTICAL TEST QUESTIONS. 

In the foregoing sections of this Cyclopedia nu¬ 
merous illustrative examples are worked out in 
detail in order to show the application of the 
various methods and principles. Accompanying 
these are samples for practice which will aid the 
reader in fixing the principles in mind. 

In the following pages are given a large num¬ 
ber of test questions and problems which afford a 
valuable means of testing the reader’s knowledge 
of the subjects treated. They will be found excel¬ 
lent practice for those preparing for Civil Service 
Examinations. In some cases numerical answers 
are given as a further aid in this work. 


371 











































































REVIEW QUESTIONS 


O If THE SUBJECT OF 

BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PART I. 


1. What preparation and qualifications are essential to a 
superintendent of building operations ? 

2. What are batter boards, and how should they be prepared ? 
What is a bench mark ? 

3. What is the advantage of laying a rough floor in buildings ? 
Why is this often laid diagonally ? 

4. How much larger than the outside of the wall should the 
excavation of a cellar be carried ? Why ? 

5. How far apart should laths be spaced ? What defects war¬ 
rant the rejection of laths ? 

6. What should the priming coat of paint consist of? How 
should knots be treated before priming ? 

7. What is the position of the architect, as superintendent, 
in relation to the owner and the contractor ? 

8. Describe the peppermint test for plumbing pipes. 

9. Show by a sketch the difference between “block finish” and 
“mitred finish”. What is a plinth block? 

10. What must be considered in locating a dwelling? 

11. What is a loose-joint butt ? A loose-pin butt ? 

12. What should be the area of the cold air box in relation to the 
piping to registers ? 

13. What particular points should be observed in the inspection 
of electric light wires ? 

14. How should the connection between lead and iron pipes be 
made? 

15. What is the principal objection to the using of stock doors ? 

16. What makes a good finish for hard woods ? What is the 
purpose of a " filler”? 


373 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


17 How long should lime plaster have been mixed before apply¬ 
ing to the walls ? Why ? At what time should hair be added to the 
plaster ? 

18. What is the proper width of exposure for roof shingles? 
Wall shingles ? What is “head cover” ? 

19. Describe some improper methods by which cellar walls are 
often built ? Point out the defects. 

20. How should vertical lead pipes be secured? Horizontal 
lead pipes? 

21. What is a tight cesspool ? A leaching cesspool ? 

22. Is a girt or a ledger-board to be preferred as a support for 
floor timbers ? Why ? 

23. Describe the process of slaking lime and mixing mortar. 
When should cement be added if part cement is used ? 

24. What precaution must be taken in furring with wood 
around chimneys? 

25. What is a ground cock ? A compression cock ? 

26. What are some simple methods of determining the nature 
of the ground when a house is to be built. 

27. What is the usual breadth and spacing of floor timbers ? 
Rafters ? 

28. What are the principal qualities of good building sand? 
Give some simple tests ? 

29. How are gas pipes tested ? 

30. Show by a sketch a single-rebated door frame. A double- 
rebated frame. What advantage does one possess over the other ? 

31. Which is to be preferred for building upon, gravel or clay? 
Why? 

32. Is it well to use matched boards under roof shingles ? Give 
reasons. 

33. What is a mortise lock? Where and why are sash lifts 
used? 

34. Is it well to plaster the inside of chimney flues ? Why ? 
What makes the best flue ? 

35. What is the best method of bridging floors ? Partitions ? 

36. What general plan should be followed in superintending 
building operations ? 


374 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


37. Why are hardwood floors usually matched? What is blind 
nailing? Traversing? 

38. What are screeds ? Skim-coat ?* White-coat ? 

39. How should hot air pipes which run through partitions be 
protected ? 

40. Where would you put brick or plaster filling to afford the 
greatest protection against the spread of fire ? 

41. Describe the method of joining soil pipes. What is the 
object of caulking the joint ? 

42. What is indirect heating ? 

43. What portions of the outside frame of a house should be 
tenoned or framed together ? 

44. What is an S-trap? To what dangers are small traps 
subject ? What is the remedy ? 

45. How are hardwood doors made ? What is the usual thick¬ 
ness of the veneers ? 

46. What is a hopper closet ? A syphon-jet closet ? 

47. Describe some points to be observed in the inspection of 
gas piping. 

48. Show by a sketch how the riser and tread of stairs are put 
together. Give two methods of determining the length of steps. 

49. Describe the system of direct hot water heating. 

50. What is the usual thickness of plate glass ? Of single-thick 
glass ? Of double-thick glass ? 


* 


375 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 


ON THE SUBJECT O E 

BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE. 

PART II. 


„ 1. What is the usual arrangement in regard to use of party 

walls ? 

2. How is a cellar or vault wall usually protected from damp¬ 
ness? What material is to be preferred? 

3. Describe the method of constructing brick-veneered 
buildings. 

4. How is ashlar bonded, and what must be observed in 
backing stone with bricks? 

5. What is meant by “half-slating?” Describe the appear¬ 
ance of good slates. 

6. Describe five tools used in stone cutting. 

7. What are some of the common defects to be noted in the 
inspection of cut stone? 

8. What is a good proportion for cement concrete? 

9. Give two formulae for the safe load on piling. What con¬ 
dition of moisture is necessary for the preservation of piling ? 

10. What is a rowlock arch? A gauged arch? 

11. Describe the process of laying bricks. What common 
practice must be guarded against? 

12. How are cast-iron columns tested ? How should the orna¬ 
mental caps be made? 

13. What is broken ashlar? Make simple sketch. 

14. Why are bricks wet, and how should it be done? 

15. Upon what does the strength of a rubble wall mainly de¬ 
pend? What is coursed rubble? 


376 



BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


16. What is “English bond?” “Flemish bond?” Make a 
sketch of each. 

17. How should stone sills be bedded? Why? 

18. What common practice in laying a tin roof should be 
guarded against? Describe the use and advantage of “cleats.” 

19. What are some of the common finishes given to cut stone? 

20. What is skeleton construction ? 

21. How would you prepare an old floor to receive tiling? 
What is “floating” of tiles? 

22. How may hollow brick walls be bonded, and what pre¬ 
caution is necessary? 

23. Give a brief summary of the six “general rules for laying 
cut stone.” 

24. Why are columns and girders to be preferred to partitions 
for supporting - store floors? 

25. Describe a process of laying a tar and gravel composition 

roof. 

26. Describe the construction of a fireproof vault. 

27., Describe the main features of mill construction. 

28. How are fire doors made and hung? 

29. Mention four important things to be considered in the 
planning of mercantile buildings. 

30. Show by a sketch some common forms of steel columns. 
Which are “open,” and which “closed columns?” 

31. Describe the “end method” terra-cotta floor arch. “Side 
method.” 

32. What preparation is necessary before painting a steel frame ? 
What is often used in place of paint? Why? 

33. What is the “dead load” of a building? “Live load?” 
Why should not all of the latter be always used in determining 
footings ? 

34. What should be noted in inspecting riveting and splicing? 
Why is bolting not as good as riveting? 

35. What is grillage ? A caisson ? 

36. Describe the Expanded Metal concrete floor. 

37. How are level ceilings formed under fireproof floors and 
roofs ? 


377 




BUILDING SUPERINTENDENCE 


38. Of what material should soil pipes in high buildings be 
made, and how put together? Why? 

39. How may fireproof partitions be made? 

40. Make a sketch of an ordinary type of steel girder. What 
are separators and how are they used? 

41. What particular qualities are desirable in a fireproof floor ? 

42. Describe the u Ransome” floor construction. 

43. What is wind pressure, and how are its effects guarded 
against in high buildings ? 

44. Why must tie rods be used in some forms of floor con¬ 
struction? What is the common size? 

45. Describe two methods of fireproofing a steel column. 

46. What are some of the advantages of “hard plaster?” 
What is “scagliola ?” 

47. Describe a fireproof partition of metal lathing. 

48. What must be particularly observed in the setting of terra¬ 
cotta floor arches? 

49. What must be noted in the inspection of a steel frame ? 

50. How may exterior windows in mercantile buildings be 
made fireproof? 


878 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

ON, THE SUBJECT OF 

CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 

PART I. 


1. Describe generally the province of the specification. 

2 Describe generally the characteristics of the specification 

3. Describe generally the limits of the specification. 

4. State the nature of the relationship the specification should 
endeavor to establish between the owner, builder, and architect, and 
how such relationships are to be encouraged and maintained. 

5. How do specifications affect and influence the cost of com¬ 
pleted work? 

6. Describe the position in the transaction of (a) The Owner 4 
(b) The Contractor, (c) The Specification Writer. 

7. Make an outline of a contemplated work other than that 
stated in the text (preferably of some simple structure familiar to 
the student, as the home he lives in, or a neighboring store or building 
to which he has access) hereafter called the “Student’s Scheme.” 

8. State some of the points to be studied in connection there-i 
with before the specification is begun. 

9. Why should a specification writer make a special study of 
materials? 

10. Describe the province of sand in mortar and how you 
would select a sand for use. 

11. Describe some experiment, other than those given in the 
text, which would throw light on the value of a material used m the 
“Student’s Scheme.” 


379 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


12. Give a list of trade catalogues you have collected. 

13. Give a list of subjects which in the “Student’s Scheme” 
should be included in the “General Conditions.” 

14. Give a list of masonry materials required in the “Student’s 
Scheme.” 

15. Write a 400 word specification as required in Note 1, page 
33. 

16. Give a list of carpenters’ materials required in the “Student’s 
Scheme.” 

17. Write a 400 word specification as required in Note 2, page 

38. 

18. Write a 400 word specification as required in Note 3, page 

39. 

19. Give a list of fixtures required in the plumbing work of the 
“Student’s Scheme.” 

20. Write a 400 word specification as required in Note 4, page 

43. 

21. Describe a system of heating a building (“Student’s 
Scheme”) other than that herein required. 

22. Write a 400 word specification as required in Note 5, page 

44. 

23. State the points which the “Formal Contract” should 
cover. 


380 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

ON THE SUBJECT OF 

CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 

PART II. 


1. What is a Specification? What is a Contract? 

2. Describe briefly the general functions of the specification. 

3. What is the relation between the specification and the 
working drawings? When does one take precedence over the other? 

4. Describe briefly the relations, first, between Owner and 
Architect; second, between Architect and Contractor; third, between 
Contractor and Owner. 

5. Describe different ways in which payment may be arranged 
under contract. 

6. How do municipal building laws affect the preparation of 
specifications? 

7. What are the disadvantages of requiring the Contractor to 
warrant portions of the work? 

8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of specifying 
by means of notes made on the working drawings? 

9. What are the general principles that govern in case of 
changes being made in the specification or the drawings after contract 
b let? 

10. Describe in a general way a Specification Reminder. 

11. Prepare a Specification Reminder applicable to the case of 
some structure which you have personally observed. 

12. Write a portion of a specification, setting forth the general 
duties and responsibilities of the Contractor. 


381 



CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 


13. Write a portion of a specification, setting forth the general 
duties and responsibilities of the Architect. 

14. Draft clauses of a specification, covering the carpentry 
work of a small dwelling. 

15. Write an essay of about 100 words on each of the following 
topics, confining yourself to a discussion of general characteristics, 
somewhat after the model shown in the discussion of “Heating” on 
page 84: 


Masonry 

Concrete Construction 
Brickwork 
Terra-Cotta 
Plastering 

Structural Steel and Iron 
Sheet Metal 


Carpentry Work 

Hardware 

Painting 

Heating 

Plumbing 

Gasfitting 

Electric Work 


16. What are the essentials of a well-written specification? 


382 



REVIEW QUESTIONS 

OH" TUB SUBJECT OB' 

THE ARCHITECT IN HIS LEGAL 
RELATIONS. 


1. Supposing an architect and liis client have bargained for 
the making of plans alone. The owner then writes to the archi¬ 
tect offering to pay $250 for plans such as have been discussed. 
The architect writes a note saying, “I will accept your offer and 
will make the plans mentioned for $250”. This note the archi¬ 
tect gives to his office boy, who, however, never delivers it. The 
architect, in ignorance of the boy’s neglect, makes the plans, and 
offers them to his client four months later The owner refuses to 
take them or pay for them. Was there any contract on which 
the architect can recover ? 

2. An architectural student, twenty years of age, says to A: 
“When I begin to practice my profession I will make plans for 
the house you propose to build, and will superintend the construction 
of it. I will charge you $1,000 for the entire work”.j Eighteen 
months later, he begins to practice, and A asks him to carry out 
his agreement, which he refuses to do. Has A any remedy ? 

3. Supposing it is orally agreed between A, a real estate 
speculator, and B, an architect, that B shall give his entire time to 
A in designing and superintending the construction of houses for 
the period of three years for a salary of $2,000 a year. After 6 
months of work by B, A refuses to continue the contract or to 
pay for the work already done. Has B any legal remedy; and if 
so, to what extent ? 

4. A, the owner of a house, orally agrees with B, an archi¬ 
tect, that on a day two months distant, B shall deliver to A certain 


383 



LEGAL RELATIONS 


plans for alterations of A’s house, that A shall thereupon paj $500 
for the plans; and that thereafter B shall superintend the altera¬ 
tions, which are to he finished within ten months from the date of 
making the contract, and shall be paid at a fixed rate for his time. 
On the date agreed, B, although he has not finished the plans, 
demands the payment of the agreed sum. This is refused, and he 
brings suit for it. Can he recover? 

5. A, the agent for certain building material, comes to B, 
a contractor who is building a block on his own account, and asks 
B to purchase some of his building material for the block, repre¬ 
senting that it is fireproof, and will not change color with exposure. 
B, believing A’s representations, makes a contract for a certain 
amount of the material. Before the material is delivered, B makes 
experiments and finds that the material is not fireproof, and that 
it does change color with exposure. What course should he pursue ? 

6. A and B make an agreement for the construction of a 
building, the contract price being agreed upon as $5,000. The 
contract is reduced to writing, and after signing it B finds that the 
price was inserted as $5,500. He asks A to agree to change the 
amount to conform to their understanding, and A refuses. What 
course should B pursue ? 

7. An architect is called upon to superintend the construc¬ 
tion of a building, which is already in course of erection. He finds 
that X has orally agreed to guarantee the fulfilment of the con¬ 
tract by the builder, and to be responsible to A, the owner, for any 
default in the performance of the builder’s contract. The architect 
is also asked to make extensive changes in the plans, agreed to by 
the builder. What course might the architect recommend in order 
to enable A to hold X responsible as surety ? 

8. If an architect is offered a rebate for his own benefit on 
the selling ]Trice of building material to be used in a client’s house, 
what should he do ? 

9. A directs his architect to find out the best terms upon 

which tiles can be bought. The architect secures informal bids, 
and says to the lowest bidder that he represents A in the matter, 
and that as agent of A he will take a certain quantity of the tiles 
at the price named. A refuses to accept the tiles. Has the seller 
any remedy (a) against A ? (b) against the architect? 


384 



LEGAL KELATIONS 


10. Supposing that A, in the last question, had directed the 

architect to make a contract in his behalf for a certain quantity of 
the tiles upon the best terms obtainable, and that the architect had 
made a contract, and had ordered the tiles delivered to the owner, 
without stating that he was acting for the owner. After the tiles 
had been delivered and used, could the seller recover the price (a) 
from the architect ? (b) from the owner ? 

11. Would a provision in a contract that no suit should be 
brought thereon, but that all disputes should be settled by referees, 
be valid ? 

12. A contract provides that work is to be completed within 
ninety days, and that for every day of delay after that period a 
certain sum shall be paid. How test the validity of this clause ? 

13. An architect sends a draftsman in his office, who has 
a sufficient architectural training, to inspect a building in the 
course of construction, and having heard the draftsman’s report, 
gives a certificate, upon which, in accordance with the building 
contract, the ow T ner makes a payment. It later appears that the 
draftsman overlooked obvious defects in the work. The con¬ 
tractor fails, and owing to these defects a part of the work has to 
be done over, causing the owner a loss. Is the architect liable for 
this loss ? 



385 










»! 






k 


















































INDEX 


The page numbers of this volume will be found at the bottom of the 
pages; the numbers at the top refer only to the section. 


Page 


Page 

A 


Bankruptcy and insolvency 

337 

Air valve 

75 

Batter boards 

21 

Appendix 

366 

Bay windows 

152 

Arches 121, 

138 

Bench mark 

22 

Architect 

232 

Bolts 

92 

compensation 

360 

Bonding of brick 

117 

confidence in decisions 

13 

Bowls and tubs 

68 

duties in general 

340 

Brass pipes 

61 

familiarity with site 

13 

Breach of contract 

328 

knowledge of statute law 

338 

Brick filling 

45 

invitation to, to compete 

359 

Brick footing 

11C 

in his legal relations 

315 

Brick laying 

lie 

liability of 

356 

Brick veneer 

125 

position under building contract 

341 

Brickwork 

113 

discrepancy in plans 

354 

arches 

121 

duty toward contractor 

354 

bonding 

117 

as agent 

352 

cleaning down 

126 

as regards certificates 

342 

efflorescence 

127 

as to inspection 

348 

freezing of 

120 

limit of cost 

355 

hollow walls 

118 

relation to owner 

350 

joints 

116 

settlement of disputes 

347 

laying 

114 

practical suggestions to 

362 

repairs 

127 

as public official 

359 

superintendence 

127 

rejection of materials 

14 

thickness of walls 

114 

relations with contractor 

12 

waterproofing of walls 

126 

relations with owner 

12 

Bridging of joists 

36 

as superintendent 

11 

Building superintendence 

11-204 

systematic plan of supervision 

14 

cellar work and foundations 

23 

understanding of drawings 

13 

city buildings 

105 

Architraves 

81 

duties and responsibilities of architect 12 

Ashlar masonry 

135 

final inspection 

102 

Assignability of contracts 

326 

framing 

33 

B 


heating 

69 

Back plaster 

44 

inside finish 

81 

Balloon framing 

36 

lathing 

55 

Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 





387 


2 


INDEX 



Page 

Building superintendence 

mason work 

42 

outside finish 

50 

painting 

95 

plastering 

57 

plumbing 

59 

site, selection of 

15 

Bush hammering 

132 

Buttering the tiles 

166 

C 

Caissons 

180 

Cant-board 

150 

Cantilever foundations 

180 

Cellar drain 

16 

Cellar walls 

27, 30 

Cellar work and foundations 

23 

cellar walls 

27, 30 

cesspool and drains 

24 

underpinning 

32 

Cement 

30, 218 

fineness 

219 

initial set 

220 

non-staining 

221 

soundness 

220 

Centering for arches 

139 

Cesspool and drains 

24 

leaching cesspool 

24 

tight cesspool 

25 

Chimney furring 

47 

City buildings 

105 

areas and vaults 

112 

brick veneer 

125 

brickwork 

113 

cut stonework 

129 

derrick stones 

111 

fireproof 

173 

footing stones and concrete 

108 

foundation walls 

110 

framing and flooring 

154 

lime and cement 

123 

party walls 

105 

pile foundations 

107 

roofing and metal work 

143 

rubble walls 

110 

soil 

106 

thickness of walls 

112 

Clapboarding and siding 

54 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages . 



Page 

Closed string 


86 

Closets 


65 

Cokl-air box 


71 

Collar beam and purlins 


41 

Colonial colors 


96 

Colors for painting houses 


96 

Columns 

138, 

176 

Common bricks 


119 

Composition roofing 


148 

Concrete floors 


186 

Concrete levpler 


109 

Concreting of cellar 


59 

Conductors 


150 

Contract between the U. S. A. 

and John 


Doe 


264 

Contracts 


315 

assignability of 


326 

avoidance of 


327 

breach of 


328 

conditions 


324 

consent 


320 

consideration 


322 

construction of 


325 

definition of 

r 

273 

discharge by consent 


329 

express 


316 

implied in law 


316 

law of 


315 

modification 


329 

parties to 


319 

penalties and liquidated 

damages 

327 

reforming 


327 

statute of frauds 


323 

suretyship 


330 

waiver 


329 

Contracts and specifications 

207- 

-313 

contractor 


210 

formal contract 


251 

general requirements 


225 

government contracts 


256 

materials 


214 

outline of work 


212 

owner 


209 

proposal sheet 


251 

sample contract 


264 

specification 

228- 

-250 

specification outline 


291 


i 

388 


INDEX 


3 


Page 


Contracts and specifications 

specification writer 211 

use of words 225 

Contractor 210 

responsibility of 229 

relations with architect 12 

Copper roofing 146 

Corner beads 55 

Counters 167 

Crandalled work 132 

Crowning 160 

Custom-made doors 88 

Cut stonework (see “Stonework”) 129 

Cylinder locks 90 

D 

Dampness of walls 113 

Decisions of architect • 13 

Derrick stones 111 

Description of house 20 

Door finish 82 


Page 

Fireproof building 

girders * 182 

girder connections 182 

grillage 178 

heating system 202 

height 174 

inspection 182, 192 

interior finish 199 

lavatory fittings 203 

painting 183, 203 

pipes and conduits 200 

preliminary work 174 

roof and ceilings 190 

site 174 

stairs 199 

structure 175 

terra-cotta covering 192 

wind pressure 191 

window frames 198 

Fireproof vaults 169 


Door frames 
Door locks 
Doors and trimmings 
Drawings, owner’s interest in 
Drawings upon which contracts are 
based 

Drawings and specifications, understand¬ 
ing of 

Dropped grider 
Dry wells 

E 

Efflorescence 

Electric wiring 49, 

Expanded metal latliing 
Exterior framing 
Exterior plastering 

F 

Fireplaces 
Fireproof building 
caissons 

cantilever foundation 

cement coating 

columns 

completion 

erection 

exterior walls 

floor construction 


82 

Fireproofing 


90 

columns 

193 

88 

girders 

194 

20 

partitions 

194 


Fire stops 

45 

20 

Flashings 

147 


Floating the tiles 

166 

13 

Floor beams 

159 

35 

Flooring of city buildings 

154 

26 

cap and base 

158 


crowning 

160 

127 

finish 

167 

227 

floor beams 

159 

196 

flooring 

163 

36 

flush framing 

160 

58 

iron and steel supports 

157 


mill construction 

161 

59 

offices 

155 

173 

paper and deafening 

165 

180 

partitions 

162 

180 

pipe columns 

158 

183 

• slow burning construction 

161 

176 

steel columns and girders 

159 

204 

steel girders 

160 

176 

stock for 

164 

190 

stores 

155 

183 

supervision of 

163 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


« 


389 


4 ' INDEX 


Flooring of city buildings 

Page 

Heating apparatus 

Pag<* 

tiling and mosaic * 

165- 

supervision of 

72 

upper floors 

164 

Heating pipes 

201 

Floors 

93 

Hollow w alls 

118 

Flush framing 

160 

Hopper and trap 

65 

Flush girder 

35 

Hot water heating 

77 

Footing stone 

24 

heaters 

80 

Footing stones and concrete 

108 

piping 

78 

Formal contract 

Foundation 

251 

radiators 

valves 

80 

79 

caisson 

180 

House, description of 

20 

cantilever 

grillage 

180 

178 

Hydraulic lime and cement 

I 

123 

pile 

180 

Inside finish 

81 

Foundation walls for city buildings 

110 

architraves 

81 

Framing 

33 

bolts 

92 

balloon 

36 

doors and trimmings 

88 

bridging 

36 

floor paper 

94 

exterior 

36 

floors 

93 

ledger-board 

37 

hardware of doors 

89 

partitions 

41 

inspection 

92 

roofs 

40 

locks 

90 

Framing of city buildings 

154 

matching floor boards 

94 

Freezing of brickwork 

120 

miscellaneous 

95 

Furnace 

71 

stairs 

84 

Furnace pipes 

47 

stock for flooring 

94 

Furring and finish 

G 

Gas and electric pipes 

Gas pipes 

Girders 

Glazing 

Government contracts 

Grillage 

Grille work 

Ground water 

Gutters 

H 

46 

201 

48 

182 

101 

256 

178 

167 

16 

50, 149 

windows 

Inside staining 

Iron pipes 

J 

Jambs 

K 

Keene’s cement 

Knobs for doors 

L 

Lathing 

metal 

Lavatory fittings in fireproof building 
Law of agency 

86 

98 

61 

138 

198 

91 

55 

56 

203 

331 

Hard plaster 

197 

agent 

331 

Heating apparatus 

69 

corporations 

334 

cold air box 

71 

delegation of powers by agent 

333 

furnace 

71 

duties of agent to principal 

332 

hot water 

77 

independent contractor 

331 

location of 

72 

liability of principal 

332 

selection 

69 

powers of agent 

331 

steam 

73 

public officers 

334 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


390 


» 

INDEX 

0 


Page 

- 

Page 

Law of agency • 


Metal lathing 

196 

societies 

334 

Mill construction 

161 

undisclosed principal 

334 

Mill scale 

183 

Law of contracts 

315 

Mortar 

122 

Law and equity 

335 

Mortise locks 

91 

Leaching cesspool 

24 

0 


Lead pipes 

60 

One-pipe circuit system 

75 

Ledger board 

37 

One-pipe relief system 

74 

Legal proceedings 

336 

Open string 

85 

Legal relations 

315-365 

Outside finish 

50 

bankruptcy and insolvency 

337 

clapboarding 

54 

contracts 

315 

paper 

51 

low of agency 

331 

porch and piazza 

53 

law and equity 

335 

shingles 

50 

legal proceedings 

* 336 

siding 

54 

liens 

337 

slating 

52 

torts 

339 

Avail shingles 

54 

Locks for doors 

90 

window frames 

52 

Liens. 

337 

Owner 

209 

Lime and cement 

123 

interest in plan drawings 

20 

color 

124 

relations with architect 

12 

hydraulic 

123 

P 


protection of 

125 



setting and durability 

123 

Painting 

95 

Lintels 

138 

colors 

96 

Lumber for construction and finish 

222 

exterior 

95 

M 


exterior stains 

96 

Mail chutes 

171 

filling and finishing 

99 

Mason work 

42 

floor finish 

100 

back plaster 

44 

glazing 

101 

chimneys 

42 

inside 

97 

electric wiring 

49 

inside stains 

98 

fire stops 

45 

priming 

97 

furnace pipes 

47 

puttying 

95 

furring 

46 

rubbing down 

100 

gas pipes 

48 

tinting 

101 

plumbing 

48 

varnish and shellac 

98 

Materials 


Partition blocks 

194 

rejection of 

14 

Partitions 

41. 162, 194 

space for 

22 

Pet cock 

79 

studies in 


Pile foundations 

107 

rement 

218 

Pipe columns 

158 

lumber 

222 

Piping 


sand 

214 

brass 

61 

Metal conductors 

149 

iron 

61 

Metal lath 

56 

lead 

60 

Metal lath partitions 

195 

Piping for hot Avater heating 

78 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


391 


6 


INDEX 


+ 



;Page 

Plastering 

157 

applying mortar 

' 57 

exterior 

58 

mixing 

57 

Plate glass 

102 

Plinth block 

83 

Plumbing 

48, 59 

bowl and tub 

68 

cocks 

68 

connections and vents 

66 

fixtures 

64 

pipes 

60, 200 

tanks and flushing 

67 

testing 

63 

traps 

62 

waste pipes 

62 

Plumbing pipes 

. 200 

Porch and piazza 

53 

Portland cement 

124 

Priming 

97 

Proposal sheet 

251 

Puttying 

95 

Q 


Quantum meruit 

316 

Quoins 

138 

R 


Radiators 


hot water 

80 

steam 

76 

Rebated corner 

83 

Reforming contracts 

327 

Rim locks 

91 

Rock face finish of stone 

131 

Roebling floor 

188 

Roofing and metal work 

143 

9 


bay windows 

152 

composition roofing 

148 

conductors 

149 

copper roof 

146 

Hashings 

147 

'galvanized iron work 

151 

gutters 

149 

inspection 

149 

skylights 

153 

slate roof 

146 

tiles 

148 

tin roofs 

144 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


Page 


Roofing and metal work 

tinned doors and shutters 152 

Roofs 40, 163, 223 

Rosendale cement 30 

Rubble masonry 133 

Rubble walls 110 

S 

Safe load upon piles, formula for 107 

Sand 122, 214 

Scagliola 198 

Shingle facia 50 

Shingles 50 

Short hopper 65 

Sill on wall 34 

Site 

familiarity of architect with 12 

selection of 15 

Skewback 139, 184 

Skylights 153 

Slate roofing "" 146 

Slating 52 

Slow burning construction 161 

Soil, testing condition of 15 

Specification 

definition of 273 

general scope of 273 

Specification outline 291 

brickwork 296 

carpenter work 299 

excavation 293 

gasfitting 313 

general conditions 291 

glazing 307 

heating 307 

metal work 298 

painting 306 

plastering 297 

plumbing 308 

stone work 295 

Specification reminder 285 

Specification sample 228 

carpentry construction 241 

canvas 243 

finish lumber 242 

finished floors 242 

glass 245 

gutters and conductors 244 


392 


INDEX 


7 


Specification sample 


Page 


carpentry construction 

hardware 243 

joists 241 

lining floors 242 

mantels 243 

paint 245 

plastering 244 

roof 243 

sash 242 

studs 242 

tile. 243 

trimmers 241 

carpenter work 240 

materials 240 

cleaning up 250 

general conditions 228 

accepted and rejected materials 229 
architect . 232 

backfilling 234 

changes 229 

city laws 230 

contract drawings 228 

contractor’s foreman 231 

detail drawings 229 

drawings 231 

employer’s liability insurance 230 
excavation 234 

ladders and scaffolds 230 

payments 232 

responsibility of contractor 229 

samples 230 

sewer and water connections 234 

* 

site 233 

time 233 

heating 249 

masonry construction 237 

basement floor 237 

brick 238 

concrete 237 

face brick 239 

ornamental terra-cotta 240 

setting of granite and soft stone 239 
setting terra-cotta 240 

masonry materials 235 

brick 235 


broken stone 


235 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


Page 

Specification sample 
masonry materials 

cement 235 

granite 236 

sand 235 

terra-cotta 236 

plumbing 245 

fixtures 245 

gas piping 249 

soil pipe 247 

traps 247 

Specification writer 211 

Stair stringers 87 

Stairs 84 

Staking out ground 21 

Steam heating 73 

boilers 76 

piping 73 

radiators 76 

valves and connections 75 

Steel columns and girders 159 

Stone-cutting tools 130 

Stone footing 109 

Stone masonry 133 

ashlar masonry 135 

bonding 1 36 

laying 135 

rubble 133 

Stoliework 129 

arches 138 

ashlar masonry 135 

columns 138 

finishing of 130 

general inspection 141 

jambs 138 

lintels 138 

pointing 143 

quoins 138 

rubble masonry 133 

rules for laying 140 

stock 129 

testing 129 

trimmings 138 

Store windows 170 

Superintendence of building operations 11 
Superintendent, duties and responsibilities 

of 11-14 


393 


MAY 20 19' 2 


8 INDEX 



Page 


Page 

Supervision, systematic plan of 

14 

Tumbler locks 

90 

Suretyship 

330 

u 


Syphon-jet closet 

65 

Underpinning 

32 

T 


V 


Terra-cotta floor arches 

184 

Valves and connections for steam heating 

75 

end method 

185 

Varnish and shellac 

98 

setting 

185 

W 


side method 

184 

Waiver 

329 

Tight cesspool 

25 

Wall shingles 

54 

Tiles 

148 

Walls of cellar 

27 

Tiling and mosaic 

165 

Washout closet 

66 

Tin roofs 

144 

Waste pipes 

62 

Tinting 

101 

Waterproofing of walls 

126 

Tools used in stone-cutting 

130 

Winding stairs 

84 

Traps 

62 

Window frames 

52 

Tread and riser 

85 

W indows 

86 


Note.—For page numbers see foot of pages. 


* 


EC -0 W. 


394 































r 



IBRARY O 












